Lesson 7b - How did Hitler consolidate and maintain his power?
Hitler's consolidation of power also provides us with the model with which all authoritarian states are compared. For example, the very concept of the 'dual state', the idea that a newly authoritarian state introduces new authoritarian institutions, such as new law courts for political prisoners, was originally devised by the German political scientist Ernst Fraenkel based on his experience as a socialist resister to Nazism before the Second World War. In addition, with Germany there is a clear demarcation between when the regime is consolidated - the gleichschaltung or 'Bringing into line' from January 1933 to August 1934 - and the consolidation of the regime after August 1934.
Most textbooks will explain the Nazis' gleichschaltung chronologically, a series of steps or stages which gradually saw the Nazis increase their power over the German people and state. This is a useful overview but regurgitating lists is rarely helpful as a form of historical explanation.
Most textbooks will explain the Nazis' gleichschaltung chronologically, a series of steps or stages which gradually saw the Nazis increase their power over the German people and state. This is a useful overview but regurgitating lists is rarely helpful as a form of historical explanation.
Date |
Action |
Group Targeted |
Consequence |
March 14, 1933 |
Ministry for Public Engagement and Propaganda created. |
Artists, writers, musicians and journalists etc. |
State control over media and cultural institutions. |
March 24, 1933 |
Enabling Act |
Parliament (Reichstag) |
Chancellor (Hitler) can pass laws without the Reichstag. |
April 26, 1933 |
Governance of German States |
Local states (Länder) |
Power and independence of local governments weakened. |
April 7, 1933 |
Act for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service |
Civil servants, teachers and judges. |
Non-Ayrans removed from the civil service |
May 2, 1933 |
Abolition of independent trade unions. |
Trade unions |
Nazi controlled German Labor Front replaces trade unions. |
July 14, 1933 |
Law against the Founding of New Parties |
Non-Nazi political parties. |
All remaining non-Nazi parties abolished. |
July 1933 |
Concordat - 'Reichskonkordat' |
Catholic Church |
Bishops take an oath of loyalty to the state. |
April 1934 |
Creation of the People’s Court |
Judicary |
Judges with Nazi beliefs, replaced the Supreme Court |
19 August 1934 |
Hitler appoints himself Führer |
President |
Hitler combines the role of Chancellor and President. |
Coercion - Formal Social Control
a. Coercive Legal Methods - Important during consolidation
New authoritarian laws - the list above contains a number of laws (Acts) which helped create the single party, authoritarian state that was Nazi Germany. Taken together the laws weakened the various sources of power which had acted as check on the power of the executive in Weimar Germany.
a. Coercive Legal Methods - Important during consolidation
New authoritarian laws - the list above contains a number of laws (Acts) which helped create the single party, authoritarian state that was Nazi Germany. Taken together the laws weakened the various sources of power which had acted as check on the power of the executive in Weimar Germany.
|
Of all of the laws, the Enabling Act of March 1933 was central to Hitler's ability to do much else that followed and the Enabling Act itself was made possible by the political crisis that resulted from the burning down of Reichstag in February 1933. The convenience of the Reichstag Fire to Hitler's rise to power has led to suggestions that the Nazis set the fire themselves. The fact that the supposed SA arsonists were amongst those killed in the Night of Long Knives which saw Hitler's Nazi rivals murdered (see coercive force below) only adds fuel to the flames of conspiracy. The Reichstag fire allowed Hitler to declare a state of emergency, to temporarily rule by decree and to place political rivals into protective custody in the first concentration camps established (see coercive force below).
|
|
The historical consensus until recently (although not shared by me...) was that a lone Dutch Communist was responsible for setting the fire. Recent research, including the exhumation of the body of Marinus van der Lubbe, has cast doubt on whether it was possible for one man to accomplish the task.
New authoritarian institutions - Authoritarian consolidation means gradually replacing of the existing state institutions (Ernst Fraenkel’s - ‘normative’ state) with the new authoritarian ‘prerogative’ state. These new prerogative state institutions are defined by their extra-legal status, the fact that would lack any authority in a normative state. For example, when Hitler failed to get the convictions he wanted at the Reichstag Fire trial, he ordered the creation of People’s Courts which had jurisdiction over a wide range of ‘political offences’ and a tendency to punish more severely. The SA in Nazi Germany were essential to the consolidation of Hitler’s regime, but they had no legal authority to act as they did. Another example was the abolition of independent trade unions in May 1933 with the creation of the Nazi controlled German Labor Front
New authoritarian people - very quickly Hitler established what historian Ian Kershaw has described as a 'remarkable form of government' in which he surrounded himself with loyal supporters who competed for Hitler's attention.
|
This form of government is best understood as the Führerprinzip a very simple concept: that the will of the Führer was above the law and all legal institutions. The Führer’s will was the essence of the prerogative state because all government offices and policies were required to bend to that will, even if that will was vaguely defined and in need of interpretation. As in other single party authoritarian states, through the power of patronage and nepotism, loyal party members were rewarded with positions of responsibility within the new state and 'undesirable' political and social groups like socialists and jews were forced out of state professions. e.g. Act for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service.
|
|
Heinrich Himmler served as one of Hitler's most trusted deputies. He held several key positions within the Nazi regime, including Reichsführer-SS (Leader of the SS), Chief of the German Police, and Minister of the Interior. Himmler was responsible for the implementation of many of the Nazi regime's repressive policies, including the Holocaust. Joseph Goebbels was the Nazi Party's chief propagandist and served as the Reich Minister of Propaganda from 1933 until his death in 1945. He was instrumental in shaping public perception and promoting Nazi ideology through media, including newspapers, radio, and film. Hermann Göring was a high-ranking Nazi official who held various positions in the Nazi government, including Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) and President of the Reichstag. Rudolf Hess was Hitler's Deputy Führer and played a prominent role in the early years of the Nazi Party. He participated in the failed Beer Hall Putsch of 1923 and was later imprisoned with Hitler.
|
b. Coercive Force - Important during consolidation and maintenance.
The Schutzstaffel (SS) was originally a bodyguard organisation set up to counter the violence at party meetings and developed into the most important paramilitary organisation in Nazi Germany. Under the leadership of Himmler, the SS expanded. He considered the SS an elite, ideologically driven National Socialist organization, a 'conflation of Teutonic knights, the Jesuits, and Japanese Samurai'. (Burleigh & Wippermann 1991) Notoriously a branch of the SS was responsible for organising and maintaining the concentration camps. |
|
|
|
The Gestapo, short for Geheime Staatspolizei, was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. It was established in 1933, shortly after the Nazis came to power, and it played a key role in enforcing the policies of the Nazi government, suppressing political opposition, and carrying out acts of terror and repression. The Gestapo had broad powers to investigate and combat perceived threats to the Nazi state, which often included political opponents, religious figures, intellectuals, and anyone else considered undesirable by the Nazi regime. They used tactics such as surveillance, informants, interrogations, and torture to maintain control and eliminate dissent.
|
|
Concentration camps. After Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933, the Nazi regime moved quickly to suppress political opposition. The existing camps were expanded, and new ones were established. Dachau, for example, was initially used to imprison political opponents, communists, and socialists. (see film right) Then throughout the 1930s, the number of concentration camps increased. These camps were primarily used for political prisoners and others deemed enemies of the Nazi state. Conditions in these early camps were harsh, but they were not yet death camps like Auschwitz and Sobibor, which would come later.
|
|
|
|
The Night of the Long Knives was best single of example of the importance of coercive force during the consolidation of power in Nazi Germany. The "Night of the Long Knives" was a violent purge that took place in Nazi Germany from June 30 to July 2, 1934. It involved the execution of key members of the SA (Sturmabteilung), including its leader Ernst Röhm, and other political rivals. Hitler used this event to consolidate his power within the Nazi Party and eliminate internal threats. It also marked a shift in the power dynamics within the Nazi regime, with the SS (Schutzstaffel) and the regular German Army gaining prominence while the SA's influence was significantly reduced.
|
Persuasion - Informal Social Control
My three short films below remind you of the basic generic ideas that will help you make sense of the key features of informal social control.
My three short films below remind you of the basic generic ideas that will help you make sense of the key features of informal social control.
|
|
|
|
Censorship
Censorship means that the state suppresses information or opinion which is offensive or contrary to the views of those in authority. It might be considered a negative form of propaganda.
Censorship means that the state suppresses information or opinion which is offensive or contrary to the views of those in authority. It might be considered a negative form of propaganda.
|
The Nazis enacted laws that criminalized criticism of the government and any dissenting voices. The most infamous of these was the Reich Press Law of 1933. The Nazis established the Reich Chamber of Culture, which controlled all aspects of art, literature, music, and media. Only those who adhered to Nazi ideology were allowed to create and present their work.
In 1933, the Nazis organized public book burnings of works (right) they deemed "un-German" or contrary to Nazi ideology. This was a symbolic act of censorship. The education system was thoroughly controlled to ensure that Nazi ideology was taught. Teachers and professors who didn't conform to Nazi beliefs were dismissed. (Also see above 'New Authoritarian People) |
|
Propaganda
Propaganda is a conscious attempt to influence the opinions of an audience (and indirectly their actions) in a way that is designed to serve the interests of those who create and spread the propaganda. Although propaganda is a cultural phenomenon - it concerned with thoughts, ideas and beliefs expressed through newspapers and radio, posters and film - propaganda is also designed to impact on political and social life, albeit indirectly. The more ambitious the regime is in its desire to control the individual, the more important the mobilisation of the public in support of the regime. This is propaganda as totalitarian mobilisation. At the other extreme is propaganda that is less ambitious and simply meant to depoliticise and entertain. In ancient Rome this was summed up by the expression 'give them bread and circuses and they will never rebel'.
Nazi Germany was more ambitous than Mussolini's Italy in this respect but not quite as total as Stalin's Russia. The more totalitarian the regime is, the more invasive and extensive the propaganda seeks to be. For example, in the most totalitarian of states the distiction between art and propaganda become blurred.
Propaganda is a conscious attempt to influence the opinions of an audience (and indirectly their actions) in a way that is designed to serve the interests of those who create and spread the propaganda. Although propaganda is a cultural phenomenon - it concerned with thoughts, ideas and beliefs expressed through newspapers and radio, posters and film - propaganda is also designed to impact on political and social life, albeit indirectly. The more ambitious the regime is in its desire to control the individual, the more important the mobilisation of the public in support of the regime. This is propaganda as totalitarian mobilisation. At the other extreme is propaganda that is less ambitious and simply meant to depoliticise and entertain. In ancient Rome this was summed up by the expression 'give them bread and circuses and they will never rebel'.
Nazi Germany was more ambitous than Mussolini's Italy in this respect but not quite as total as Stalin's Russia. The more totalitarian the regime is, the more invasive and extensive the propaganda seeks to be. For example, in the most totalitarian of states the distiction between art and propaganda become blurred.
Joseph Goebbels, the Reich Minister of Propaganda and Enlightenment, played a central role in crafting Nazi propaganda. He believed in the power of propaganda to influence and manipulate public perception. In Germany propaganda was designed to both mobilise the masses in enthusiatic support for the regime e.g. The Nuremberg Rallies but in fact most films produced in Nazi Germany were examples of evasion - 'bread and circuses' - and meant to entertain. The reach of propaganda was perhaps different in German to its contemporary authoritarian states. Almost 100% of the German population was literate during the time period that the Nazis were in power. In Italy the rate was closer to 50% while Mussolini was in power, and in the Soviet Union it was about 45% under Stalin
|
|
The Nazis tightly controlled the media, including newspapers, radio, and film. They used these platforms to spread their ideology, promote Hitler's image, and demonize perceived enemies. The Nazis used propaganda to promote anti-Semitic beliefs and stereotypes, blaming Jews for Germany's problems. This propaganda laid the groundwork for the Holocaust. Nazi propaganda emphasized nationalism, Aryan supremacy, and the idea of a greater German empire. They used symbols like the swastika and slogans like "Deutschland über alles" (Germany above all) to promote this vision. The Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls were used to indoctrinate young people with Nazi ideology. (See next lesson)
|
Charismatic leadership
|
The Nazis cultivated a cult of personality around Adolf Hitler. Portraying him as a charismatic and infallible leader was a key element of their propaganda. But it was also a reality in so far as the army swore an oath to Hitler personally, not just to the country. Perhaps the most important aspect of Hitler's personality was his ability as a public speaker. He has discovered the skill early in his political career and his speeches were central to Goebbels's propaganda campaigns. Hitler had a commanding and charismatic presence when he spoke.
|
|
His ability to capture the attention of the audience was remarkable, and he often held large crowds in rapt attention. His speeches were designed to evoke strong emotional responses from his listeners. He frequently used repetition to drive home key points and slogans, such as "Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer" (One people, one empire, one leader). Hitler skillfully appealed to German nationalism, portraying himself as the savior of the nation and the only leader capable of restoring Germany to greatness after its defeat in World War I and the economic hardships of the Weimar Republic era. Hitler often spoke directly to the concerns and grievances of his audience, creating a sense of personal connection with his listeners. He made them feel that he understood their struggles and would address their issues. He painted a bleak picture of Germany's future without the Nazi Party and himself as the leader while promising a brighter future under Nazi rule.
Activity
The activity for this lesson will be a class based lecture. Make sure to put your notes - supplemented from here if necessary - in your OneNote.
The activity for this lesson will be a class based lecture. Make sure to put your notes - supplemented from here if necessary - in your OneNote.
Extension (essential for IB students.)
As IB students you need to start looking out for similarities and differences between the different examples of authoritarian states. The films below provide you with a generic, conceptual overview of how power can be consolidated. My pages on the IB section of the site also provide you with more details.
As IB students you need to start looking out for similarities and differences between the different examples of authoritarian states. The films below provide you with a generic, conceptual overview of how power can be consolidated. My pages on the IB section of the site also provide you with more details.
|
|
|
|