Section 2 - Consolidation and maintenance of power – Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba
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Having got into power, what does an authoritarian regime do next? In order to understand how the authoritarian state consolidates its power you need to appreciate the concepts of coercion, persuasion and consent, formal and informal social control which are the means through which all states manage to exercise control over individual citizens and civil society. The short lecture (below) explains.
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Summary
Similarities: Both regimes exhibited elements of totalitarian control, aiming to centralize power under a single leader and suppress opposition. Both regimes employed a series of legal methods to consolidate power. They used propaganda, censorship, and surveillance to maintain control over their respective populations. Both regimes relied on authoritarian governance, with power concentrated in the hands of the leader and their inner circle. They employed secret police and paramilitary organizations to enforce their rule and suppress dissent. Both regimes engaged in widespread political repression, imprisoning, or executing political opponents, dissidents, and perceived enemies of the state. They targeted specific ethnic or political groups, such as Jews in Nazi Germany and landowners, businesses, and political dissidents in Castro's Cuba.
Differences: Ideology matters. Hitler's regime was based on a racist ideology of Aryan supremacy, anti-Semitism, and expansionist nationalism, while Castro's regime was founded on Marxist-Leninist principles of socialism and anti-imperialism. The Nazi regime under Hitler systematically perpetrated genocide against Jews, Romani people, disabled individuals, and other minority groups, resulting in the Holocaust. Castro's regime, while engaging in political repression and human rights abuses, did not commit genocide. Castro's regime implemented socialist economic policies, including nationalization of industries and collectivisation of agriculture, leading to a state-controlled economy. This allowed more totalitarian control in Cuba because the state (Communist party) controlled access to important jobs and services such as state-run shops, housing, education, and health care. Access to these goods was a reward for loyalty, especially for party members who worked for the state (nomenklatura). Hitler's economic policies combined elements of state control with private ownership, focusing on rearmament and public works projects to combat unemployment. This also generated support but because private businesses continued to exist, the state did not have as much direct control over people’s lives. In contrast to communist Cuba, access to goods and services continued to depend on an ability of citizens to pay.
Similarities: Both regimes exhibited elements of totalitarian control, aiming to centralize power under a single leader and suppress opposition. Both regimes employed a series of legal methods to consolidate power. They used propaganda, censorship, and surveillance to maintain control over their respective populations. Both regimes relied on authoritarian governance, with power concentrated in the hands of the leader and their inner circle. They employed secret police and paramilitary organizations to enforce their rule and suppress dissent. Both regimes engaged in widespread political repression, imprisoning, or executing political opponents, dissidents, and perceived enemies of the state. They targeted specific ethnic or political groups, such as Jews in Nazi Germany and landowners, businesses, and political dissidents in Castro's Cuba.
Differences: Ideology matters. Hitler's regime was based on a racist ideology of Aryan supremacy, anti-Semitism, and expansionist nationalism, while Castro's regime was founded on Marxist-Leninist principles of socialism and anti-imperialism. The Nazi regime under Hitler systematically perpetrated genocide against Jews, Romani people, disabled individuals, and other minority groups, resulting in the Holocaust. Castro's regime, while engaging in political repression and human rights abuses, did not commit genocide. Castro's regime implemented socialist economic policies, including nationalization of industries and collectivisation of agriculture, leading to a state-controlled economy. This allowed more totalitarian control in Cuba because the state (Communist party) controlled access to important jobs and services such as state-run shops, housing, education, and health care. Access to these goods was a reward for loyalty, especially for party members who worked for the state (nomenklatura). Hitler's economic policies combined elements of state control with private ownership, focusing on rearmament and public works projects to combat unemployment. This also generated support but because private businesses continued to exist, the state did not have as much direct control over people’s lives. In contrast to communist Cuba, access to goods and services continued to depend on an ability of citizens to pay.
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Legal methods - formal social control
There are three dimensions to understanding legal methods. 1. New authoritarian laws. 2. New authoritarian institutions. 3. New authoritarian people. (see film) In a dictatorship there is no real separation of powers, no independent judiciary which can strike down legislation as unconstitutional. Laws might effectively be imposed by decree or martial law might be imposed. Opposing the government becomes a political crime. New institutions can be created (prerogative state), especially new law courts or government bodies. Elections might be used to provide legitimacy to government (both normative and prerogative), but the elections are neither free and nor fair. Positions of power and influence are given to people who are loyal to the party/regime in power. |
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Both Hitler and Castro used legal methods to consolidate their power. Hitler’s first 18 months of consolidating power ‘gleichschaltung’ provides us with the model with which all authoritarian states are compared. For example, the very concept of the 'dual state', the idea that a newly authoritarian state introduces new authoritarian institutions (prerogative state), such as new law courts for political prisoners, was originally devised by the German political scientist Ernst Fraenkel to help explain how Weimar democracy was replaced.
The key feature of Castro’s consolidation after 1959 was not the erosion of democratic institutions which did not exist in Cuba, but rather anti-imperialist wresting of power from American institutions within the broader context of the Cold War. An increasingly authoritarian communist state (socialist 1961 communist 1965) was created in response to the threat of the USA and support of the USSR. This was a state in which a growing party bureaucracy (nomenklatura) was increasingly in control over the day to day lives of ordinary people and which being a loyal member of the party gained you access to the things that increasingly money could not buy: housing, health, education etc. This meant that a significant section of the population had an interest in the maintenance of Castro’s regime. Whereas the consolidation on power in Nazi Germany took a matter of 18 months, in Cuba this was and remains an ongoing process (e.g. 1976 constitution).
The key feature of Castro’s consolidation after 1959 was not the erosion of democratic institutions which did not exist in Cuba, but rather anti-imperialist wresting of power from American institutions within the broader context of the Cold War. An increasingly authoritarian communist state (socialist 1961 communist 1965) was created in response to the threat of the USA and support of the USSR. This was a state in which a growing party bureaucracy (nomenklatura) was increasingly in control over the day to day lives of ordinary people and which being a loyal member of the party gained you access to the things that increasingly money could not buy: housing, health, education etc. This meant that a significant section of the population had an interest in the maintenance of Castro’s regime. Whereas the consolidation on power in Nazi Germany took a matter of 18 months, in Cuba this was and remains an ongoing process (e.g. 1976 constitution).
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Of all of the new laws, the Enabling Act of March 1933 was central to Hitler's ability to do much else that followed and was made possible by the political crisis that resulted from the burning down of Reichstag in February 1933. (see below) New institutions were created - May 2, 1933, Nazi controlled German Labour Front replaces trade unions or People’s Courts April 1934 which had jurisdiction over a wide range of “political offences” and a tendency to punish more severely. New authoritarian people were appointed - Führerprinzip a very simple concept: that the will of the Führer was above the law and all legal institutions and loyal party members were rewarded with positions of responsibility within the new state, e.g. Heinrich Himmler served as one of Hitler's most trusted deputies. He held several key positions within the Nazi regime, including Reichsführer-SS (Leader of the SS). Joseph Goebbels was the Nazi Party's chief propagandist and served as the Reich Minister of Propaganda from 1933 until his death in 1945. In addition, 'undesirable' political a social groups like socialists and jews were forced out of state professions. e.g. Act for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service April 1933. Elections were held periodically to maintain a semblance of legitimacy for the regime. However, these elections were heavily manipulated, lacked genuine political competition, and were used as tools of propaganda to reinforce Nazi control. Elections for local and regional offices, such as municipal councils and state parliaments (Landtags), were also held under Nazi rule. Elections to the Reichstag were held several times during the Nazi regime, including in 1933, 1936, and 1938. In 1934, a plebiscite was held to legitimize Hitler's assumption of the presidency after the death of President Paul von Hindenburg. In 1938, a referendum was held to approve Germany's annexation of Austria (Anschluss |
The political consolidation of Fidel Castro in the new Cuban government began in early 1959 with the appointment of communist officials to office and a wave of removals of other revolutionaries that criticized the appointment of communists. In July 1959 the relatively independent president Urrutia was replaced by a Castro appointee Osvaldo Dorticos This trend came to a head with the Huber Matos affair (see below. The government ruled by decree issue a ban on all political parties, but repeatedly stated that they would get around to organizing multiparty elections; this never occurred. As in Germany, Castro created a ‘dual state’ system by creating alternative (prerogative) institutions which bypassed the (normative) government. The most important example of this was the Institutio Nacional de Reforma Agraria (INRA)—an agency of the Cuban government responsible to implement the first (1959) and second (1963) Agrarian Reforms which was led by Castro himself and became the defacto government. The hostile reaction of the USA to the land reforms forced Castro into increasingly independent (socialist) policies, which in turn further alienated the Americans and led to an effective siege. In October 1960, and response to the refusal of US oil companies to refine imported Soviet oil, Castro nationalised 382 Cuban companies and gradually introduced a command economy. By the end of 1960 90% of Cuban exports were produced by state run companies. In February 1961, Che Guevara became minister of industries at the head of a state planning board (Juceplan) |
Coercion - formal social control
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It is the absence of the rule of law that is the most significant characteristic of an authoritarian state.
The individual might be arrested and held for an indefinite period without access to a lawyer and without having enjoyed a fair trial. In prison, they might be denied basic rights, and subject to physical and psychological abuse and torture. In this way, vocal critics, those capable of influencing others, are silenced and potential opposition is stifled. In addition, new authoritarian laws might contravene liberal expectations that new laws cannot be imposed retroactively, or that laws cannot be motivated by political or ideological biases. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
On 27 February 1933 the Reichstag building was burned down. The communists were blamed for the fire. Hitler expelled the Communists from Parliament and imprisoned many Communist leaders. This stopped them campaigning prior to the March elections. Hindenburg declared a state of emergency using Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. This resulted in newspapers being censored and personal letters and phone calls being checked. This is seen as the start of the end of democracy in Germany. The Schutzstaffel (SS) was originally a bodyguard organisation set up to counter the violence at party meetings and developed into the most important paramilitary organisation in Nazi Germany. Under the leadership of Himmler, the SS expanded. He considered the SS an elite, ideologically driven National Socialist organization. The Gestapo, short for Geheime Staatspolizei, was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. It was established in 1933, shortly after the Nazis came to power, and it played a key role in enforcing the policies of the Nazi government, suppressing political opposition, and carrying out acts of terror and repression. Concentration camps. After Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933, the Nazi regime moved quickly to suppress political opposition. The existing camps were expanded, and new ones were established. Dachau, for example, was initially used to imprison political opponents, communists, and socialists. The "Night of the Long Knives" was a violent purge that took place in Nazi Germany from June 30 to July 2, 1934. It involved the execution of key members of the SA (Sturmabteilung), including its leader Ernst Röhm, and other political rivals. |
As in Germany, the early days of the regime saw the arrest and imprisonment of opposition politicians. Members of the Batista regime were subjected to televised show trials. Guevara was charged by the new government with purging the Batista army and consolidating victory by exacting "revolutionary justice" against those regarded as traitors, chivatos (informants) or war criminals. Department of State Security (G2). This agency was responsible for monitoring, infiltrating, and suppressing dissent within Cuban society. It employed tactics such as surveillance, interrogation, and intimidation to quash opposition to the government. "Military Units to Aid Production" (UMAP), where individuals deemed to be "socially deviant" or counterrevolutionary were sent for re-education through labour. These camps subjected detainees to harsh conditions and forced labour under military supervision. Committees for the Defence of the Revolution (CDR) set up in September 1960, to monitor and report on the activities of citizens within their communities. These groups acted as a form of neighbourhood surveillance and were used to intimidate and suppress dissent. The regime engaged in mass exile of political dissidents and opponents, forcing them to leave the country or face persecution. Many Cubans fled the island in fear of reprisals from the government, leading to significant diaspora communities abroad. Between 1961-2, 150,000 Cubans left. |
Persuasion - (propaganda) - informal social control
Censorship means that the state suppresses information or opinion which is offensive or contrary to the views of those in authority. It might be considered a negative form of propaganda. Propaganda is a conscious attempt to influence the opinions of an audience (and indirectly their actions) in a way that is designed to serve the interests of those who create and spread the propaganda. Although propaganda is a cultural phenomenon - it concerned with thoughts, ideas and beliefs expressed through newspapers and radio, posters, and film - propaganda is also designed to impact on political and social life, albeit indirectly. All authoritarian states use propaganda that seeks to promote social solidarity and some degree of social depoliticisation, but only totalitarian regimes seek a social transformation through the propagandisation of culture and the arts in general. This is explained in the film below on the 'propaganda spectrum'. On education and the arts see social and cultural policies below
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As totalitarian states both Hitler’s Germany and Castro’s Cuba used significant informal social control. (See examples below) The main difference between them was simply in the ideological content of the propaganda.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Nazis enacted laws that criminalized criticism of the government and any dissenting voices. The most infamous of these was the Reich Press Law of 1933. The Nazis established the Reich Chamber of Culture, which controlled all aspects of art, literature, music, and media. In Germany propaganda was designed to mobilise the masses in enthusiastic support for the regime e.g. The Nuremberg Rallies. The reach of propaganda was perhaps different in German to its contemporary authoritarian states. Almost 100% of the German population was literate during the time period that the Nazis were in power. In Italy the rate was closer to 50% while Mussolini was in power, and in the Soviet Union it was about 45% under Stalin. Nazi propaganda emphasized nationalism, Aryan supremacy, and the idea of a greater German empire. They used symbols like the swastika and slogans like "Deutschland über alles" (Germany above all) to promote this vision. The Nazis used sport, especially the 1936 Berlin Olympics to further the interests of the regime. The Hitler Youth was open to all German youth between the ages of 10 and 18, although membership became compulsory in 1936. The Hitler Youth organized a wide range of activities aimed at promoting Nazi ideology, militarism, and loyalty to the regime. In addition to the Hitler Youth for boys, the Nazi regime also established the League of German Girls (Bund Deutscher Mädel, BDM) |
Department of Revolutionary Orientation (DOR): This department was established in the early years of the Cuban revolution and was responsible for coordinating propaganda activities, including censorship, media control, and dissemination of government-approved information. The regime utilized catchy slogans and powerful symbols to rally support for the revolution and create a sense of unity among the population. Phrases such as "¡Viva la Revolución!" (Long live the revolution!) and "¡Patria o Muerte, Venceremos!" (Homeland or death, we shall overcome!) were widely disseminated through posters, banners, and speeches. Mass Mobilization Campaigns: Literacy Campaign of 1961, which aimed to eradicate illiteracy in Cuba within a year. These campaigns not only served practical purposes but also reinforced the narrative of a united and determined people working towards the goals of the revolution. The Cuban government heavily invested in sports, particularly in disciplines where Cuban athletes could excel (especially in Olympics), such as boxing, baseball, and athletics. 1968 Olympics in Mexico City were particularly significant for Cuba as the boxing team dominated the competition, winning four gold medals. The José Martí Pioneer Organization was founded in 1961 as a mass organization for children between the ages of 6 and 14 and separated into boys and girls’ sections. It was inspired by the Soviet model of the Young Pioneer organization and aimed to instil socialist values and revolutionary consciousness in young children. |
Charismatic leaders - informal social control.
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Personality cults were certainly not new in the 20th century, but the development of the mass media of popular newspapers, radio, and newsreel, at the same time as the arrival of modern authoritarian states, created new opportunities for a cult of authoritarian leaders to be widely disseminated for propaganda purposes.
As the film opposite explains, personalitycults help to make the political process intelligible for the masses. The leader can be placed above the political fray, the representative of the common man against the elites, and leader becomes a familial source of loyalty and genuine affection; a big brother or father figure who over time becomes a source of consistency and comfort. |
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Both leaders were skilled orators who captivated audiences with their speeches and rhetoric. They used mass rallies and public events to convey their messages, inspiring devotion, and loyalty among their followers. But along with the ideological differences, the long-lasting nature and universal anti-imperial appeal of Castro/Che gave the Cuba model an international significance. The leadership cult in Nazi Germany was rooted in fascist ideology, which emphasized the supremacy of the leader and the subordination of the individual to the state. Hitler was portrayed as the infallible leader of the Aryan race, whose will was synonymous with the will of the nation. In contrast, the leadership cult in Castro's Cuba was rooted in socialist ideology, which emphasized collective leadership and the importance of the revolution. While Castro was revered as the leader of the revolution, he was also depicted as a humble servant of the people and a symbol of resistance against imperialism.
Hitler |
Castro |
Hitler possessed exceptional oratory skills and charisma, which he used to captivate audiences and inspire fervent loyalty among his followers. His powerful speeches and dynamic presence helped to cultivate a cult of personality around him, portraying him as a charismatic and visionary leader The Führerprinzip was a central tenet of Nazi ideology, which emphasized the absolute authority of the leader (Führer). Hitler was portrayed as the embodiment of the will of the German people and the nation, with unquestionable authority over all aspects of German life. His word was considered law, and obedience to his commands was seen as the highest virtue. The Nazi regime used propaganda extensively to promote Hitler's image and cultivate the cult of personality surrounding him. Portraits, posters, and statues of Hitler were displayed prominently in public spaces, while propaganda films, rallies, and events glorified his leadership and achievements. Symbols such as the swastika and the Nazi salute were used to reinforce the cult of Hitler and foster a sense of unity and loyalty among the German people. Hitler was often portrayed in messianic terms, as a saviour figure who would lead Germany to glory and redemption. He was depicted as the "saviour of the nation" who would deliver the German people from their perceived enemies and restore their greatness. This messianic image contributed to the cult-like devotion and adulation surrounding him. |
Leadership cults - Fidel Castro and Che Guevara were portrayed as heroic figures who selflessly fought for the liberation of the Cuban people from oppression and imperialism. Their images were ubiquitous in public spaces. Like Hitler, Castro was a charismatic leader who cultivated a strong personal following and inspired intense loyalty and devotion among his supporters. He was viewed as a revolutionary hero and a symbol of resistance against imperialism and oppression. His personal sacrifices and dedication to the revolutionary cause were celebrated as exemplary virtues but he was not portrayed as a messiah. Unlike Hitler's cult, which was rooted in fascist ideology and the glorification of the nation-state, Castro's cult was grounded in socialist ideology and the principles of Marxism-Leninism. Castro was depicted as a champion of socialism, anti-imperialism, and international solidarity, inspiring support not only within Cuba but also among leftist movements around the world. His support for revolutionary movements in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean elevated his status as a global icon of socialist revolution. |
Treatment of opposition - coercion and scapegoating.
(See coercion above) The main differences between the regimes were again the ideological nature of the oppression but also the scale. Castro's regime in Cuba was guided by Marxist-Leninist ideology, which framed political opposition as counter-revolutionary and subversive to the socialist project. Opposition groups were often labeled as "enemies of the revolution" and targeted for suppression. In contrast, Hitler's regime in Nazi Germany was driven by Nazi ideology where opposition was often framed in terms of ideological enemies, such as communists, but also other “subhuman groups”, notably the Jews. This dehumanisation led to a scale and intensity of repression that were greater under Hitler's regime.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
The Nazi Party: "Night of the Long Knives" was a violent purge that took place in Nazi Germany from June 30 to July 2, 1934. It involved the execution of key members of the SA (Sturmabteilung), including its leader Ernst Röhm, and other political rivals. Political opponents. Left wing political organisations were targeted early in the consolidation. The Communists (KPD) were banned at the time of Reichstag Fire, Trade Unions in May 1933 and all other political parties in July 1933. In contrast to Cuba, the Church was co-opted into the regime through The Nazi regime sought to establish agreements, known as concordats, with the Catholic Church and some Protestant denominations to regulate their relationship with the state, e.g. The Reichskonkordat, signed between Nazi Germany and the Vatican in 1933. Those who did organise resistance later in the regime were severly punished. On February 18, 1943, The White Rose movement of Hans and Sophie Scholl and Christoph Probst guillotined February 22, 1943, and July 20, 1944, plot led by Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg who was executed. |
Cuban Exiles: These groups included political organizations, paramilitary groups, and advocacy groups opposed to the Castro regime. Examples include the Cuban American National Foundation (CANF 1981) Catholic Church e.g. Christian Liberation Movement led by Oswaldo Payá. The Cuban Revolution was largely secular and socialist, and Castro's government implemented policies that limited the influence of the Church in public life. This included restrictions on religious education and the nationalization of religious schools and properties. Huber Matos: A former comandante in the Cuban Revolution, Matos became disillusioned with Castro's turn towards communism and resigned from his position in protest in 1959. He was subsequently arrested and sentenced to 20 years in prison for his opposition to the regime. Second National Front of Escambray - Eloy Gutiérrez Menoyo: Another former comandante in the Cuban Revolution, formed an anti-Castro guerrilla group called the Second National Front of Escambray, which operated in the Escambray Mountains in central Cuba during the 1960s. |
Foreign policy - helped to generate consent (support)
Both regimes pursued expansionist foreign policies aimed at extending their influence and control over other territories. Hitler's Nazi Germany sought to establish a Greater German Reich through conquest and annexation of neighbouring countries, leading to the outbreak of World War II. Similarly, Castro's Cuba supported revolutionary movements and leftist governments in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean, aiming to spread socialist ideology and anti-imperialist struggle.
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Hitler's Nazi Germany portrayed itself as a victim of the Versailles Treaty and sought to reclaim territories lost after World War I. Similarly, Castro's Cuba criticized U.S. imperialism and advocated for national sovereignty, self-determination, and anti-colonial struggles in the developing world. Both regimes formed alliances with other authoritarian and totalitarian regimes that shared similar ideological or strategic interests. Hitler's Nazi Germany formed alliances with fascist Italy and imperial Japan, as well as non-aggression pacts with the Soviet Union. Castro's Cuba aligned itself with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries, receiving economic, military, and ideological support from the socialist bloc during the Cold War. Both sets of foreign policies were popular at home and helped generate support (consent) for the regime.
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The key differences again were ideological. Nazi Germany's foreign policy was driven by fascism, which emphasized racial supremacy, expansionism, and militarism. Hitler sought to establish a racially homogeneous Greater German Reich and pursue Lebensraum (living space) for the German people. In contrast, Castro's Cuba's foreign policy was guided by Marxist-Leninist principles, which emphasized class struggle, international solidarity, and anti-capitalism. Cuba supported revolutionary movements and socialist governments in the global South, advocating for social justice and anti-imperialism. Nazi Germany pursued expansion through military aggression and conquest, employing blitzkrieg tactics and launching invasions of neighbouring countries. Hitler's regime annexed territories such as Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland, leading to the outbreak of World War II. In contrast, Cuba's expansionist efforts were primarily focused on supporting revolutionary movements and leftist governments through diplomatic, economic, military assistance but also through cultural influence (soft power). Cuba provided aid to liberation movements in countries such as Angola, Mozambique, and Nicaragua, but did not engage in direct military conquest.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Adolf Hitler's foreign policy was characterized by expansionism, aggression, and the pursuit of Lebensraum (living space) for the German people. Hitler's goals included the establishment of a Greater German Reich, the dismantling of the Treaty of Versailles, and the domination of Europe under Nazi rule. Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936): In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties, which demilitarized the Rhineland region, Anschluss with Austria (1938): Hitler sought to unify Austria (Anschluss) with Nazi Germany, viewing Austria as part of a Greater German Reich. In September 1938, Hitler, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, French Premier Édouard Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini signed the Munich Agreement, allowing Germany to annex the Sudetenland, a German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia. In August 1939, Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty that included secret protocols dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. The pact allowed Hitler to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention, leading to the outbreak of World War II. September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, triggering the start of World War II and ultimately the defeat of Nazi Germany. |
Alignment with the Soviet Union: Following the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Fidel Castro pursued a policy of close alignment with the Soviet Union. This alliance provided Cuba with economic, military, and political support, including financial aid, trade agreements, and military assistance. The presence of Soviet advisors and technicians in Cuba further strengthened ties between the two countries. Anti-imperialist rhetoric and support for revolutionary movements was instrumental in the spread of Marxist-Leninist ideology and revolutionary movements in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Cuba participated in international forums such as the Non-Aligned Movement. Cuban military interventions in Africa, such as in Angola and Ethiopia. Cuba skilfully navigated several international crises, including the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961 and the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, to bolster its standing as a defender of national sovereignty and independence. Cultural diplomacy as soft power: The Castro regime promoted Cuban culture and identity abroad through cultural exchange programs, international festivals, and artistic collaborations. Cuban music, dance, literature, and film became influential worldwide, projecting an image of Cuba as a vibrant and culturally rich nation. Cuban music, including genres like son, salsa, mambo, and Afro-Cuban jazz, has had a profound influence worldwide e.g. The Buena Vista Social Club project, Havana International Jazz Festival. |
Consent - popular policies that win public support.
This section is not in the syllabus for ‘consolidation and maintenance’ (it is a summary of aims and results of policies) but has been added to recognise that authoritarian regimes also maintain power because they do things that are popular with the public and that consequently the public support the regime (consent of the governed). It is fair to say that both regimes were genuinely popular and enjoyed a significant public support.
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
The National Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst) provided work opportunities for unemployed Germans through public works projects and agricultural labour schemes. The regime also restricted the rights of workers to strike and bargain collectively, instead promoting a corporatist model of labour relations under the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront). Public works and infrastructure projects were a significant component of Nazi Germany's economic policies, aimed at stimulating economic growth, reducing unemployment, and showcasing the regime's achievements. One of the most ambitious public works projects of the Nazi era was the construction of the Reichsautobahn, or the German highway system. The Nazi regime invested heavily in the construction of public buildings, monuments, and architectural projects intended to showcase Nazi ideology and glorify the regime. Examples include the Reich Chancellery in Berlin, the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg, and the Olympic Stadium built for the 1936 Berlin Olympics. The Kraft durch Freude (KdF), which translates to "Strength Through Joy," was a large state-operated leisure organization in Nazi Germany. Established in 1933 under the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront, DAF), the KdF aimed to provide recreational activities and affordable vacations for German workers, thereby promoting loyalty to the regime and fostering a sense of a "people's community" (Volksgemeinschaft) in which all Germans could enjoy the benefits of Hitler's rule. Hitler's emphasis on German nationalism, pride, and militarism resonated with many Germans who felt humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles and the perceived injustices of the post-World War I era. Hitler promised to restore Germany's status as a great power and rebuild the military, appealing to patriotic sentiments. Hitler's aggressive foreign policy, aimed at expanding German territory and influence, resonated with many Germans who supported the idea of Lebensraum (living space) for the German people. The annexation of Austria (Anschluss) and the acquisition of the Sudetenland were popular among Germans who saw them as steps toward restoring Germany's Pre-World War I borders. |
Cuban independence nationalism and anti-Americanism were central themes in Cuba during the 1960s, challenging U.S. hegemony, and promoting solidarity with oppressed peoples worldwide. Land Reform, redistributing land from large landowners, including foreign corporations and wealthy Cubans, to small farmers and agricultural cooperatives to increase agricultural productivity, and improve rural living standards, e.g. Agrarian Reform Law of 1959 Nationalization of Industries including sugar, mining, and utilities. The government expropriated foreign-owned companies and large landholdings, placing them under state control to redistribute wealth and resources more equitably among the Cuban population, e.g. Sugar Industry Ministry (MINAZ) was established in 1961 to oversee the management and operation of the nationalized sugar sector. Universal literacy campaigns were launched, mobilizing thousands of volunteers to teach reading and writing skills to previously marginalized populations. The government also established free public education from primary school to university, aiming to create a more educated and skilled workforce. Year of Education 1961 reduced the national illiteracy rate from around 25% to less than 4% within one year. Healthcare Reform provided universal access to healthcare services for all citizens. The government established a national healthcare system based on preventive care, primary healthcare clinics, and community-based medicine. Healthcare professionals were mobilized to provide medical care in rural and underserved areas, resulting in significant improvements in public health indicators and life expectancy, e.g. 1960 - Creation of the Cuban Ministry of Public Health: Housing Programs for affordable housing units, particularly in urban areas, and to provide housing for low-income families. The government also implemented rent controls and housing subsidies to make housing more accessible to ordinary Cubans e.g. 1960 Urban Reform Law (Ley de Reforma Urbana). |
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Part 1 - Rise to Power
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Part 3 - The Aims and Results of Policies
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