Section 3 - The Aims and Results of Policies – Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba
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Summary
As we have seen above, Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba, though separated by time, space, and ideology, shared similarities in their pursuit of authoritarian rule. However, their policies and impacts diverged significantly across economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions, including their effects on women and minorities.
Similarities: Politically, both regimes sought total control. Hitler's Germany established a brutal dictatorship, suppressing dissent and centralizing power under the Nazi Party. Castro's Cuba centralized control under the Communist Party, also limiting freedoms and suppressing opposition. Hitler’s regime worked within the existing capitalist system and with the support of big business and this set restrictions on the extent to which authoritarian control could be achieved. Cuba’s gradual embrace of communism gave the Party much more direct control over lives of its citizens and as a result transformed (and controlled) their lives more completely. The fact that the Communist Cuban regime lasted much longer also resulted in greater control.
Differences: Ideology matters. Socially, Hitler promoted racial purity through persecution and genocide, while Castro pursued social equality, though also implementing repression and censorship. In Hitler's Germany, economic policies were driven by militarisation and conquest, aiming to revive the economy and achieve fascist self-sufficiency (autarky). While initially successful in reducing unemployment and stimulating growth, this ultimately led to devastation and war. Castro's Cuba, on the other hand, pursued socialism, redistributing wealth, and prioritizing social welfare over profit. Though achieving successes in healthcare and education, it struggled with inefficiency and dependency largely because of the consequences of the Cold War. Culturally, Hitler imposed Nazi ideology, banning dissenting art and promoting a narrow vision of German identity. Castro promoted Cuban nationalism and socialist values through education and media, though also restricting expression. Women and minorities bore significant impacts. In Hitler's Germany, women faced restrictions and minorities suffered persecution. Castro's Cuba made strides in gender equality and racial justice, yet disparities persisted.
As we have seen above, Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba, though separated by time, space, and ideology, shared similarities in their pursuit of authoritarian rule. However, their policies and impacts diverged significantly across economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions, including their effects on women and minorities.
Similarities: Politically, both regimes sought total control. Hitler's Germany established a brutal dictatorship, suppressing dissent and centralizing power under the Nazi Party. Castro's Cuba centralized control under the Communist Party, also limiting freedoms and suppressing opposition. Hitler’s regime worked within the existing capitalist system and with the support of big business and this set restrictions on the extent to which authoritarian control could be achieved. Cuba’s gradual embrace of communism gave the Party much more direct control over lives of its citizens and as a result transformed (and controlled) their lives more completely. The fact that the Communist Cuban regime lasted much longer also resulted in greater control.
Differences: Ideology matters. Socially, Hitler promoted racial purity through persecution and genocide, while Castro pursued social equality, though also implementing repression and censorship. In Hitler's Germany, economic policies were driven by militarisation and conquest, aiming to revive the economy and achieve fascist self-sufficiency (autarky). While initially successful in reducing unemployment and stimulating growth, this ultimately led to devastation and war. Castro's Cuba, on the other hand, pursued socialism, redistributing wealth, and prioritizing social welfare over profit. Though achieving successes in healthcare and education, it struggled with inefficiency and dependency largely because of the consequences of the Cold War. Culturally, Hitler imposed Nazi ideology, banning dissenting art and promoting a narrow vision of German identity. Castro promoted Cuban nationalism and socialist values through education and media, though also restricting expression. Women and minorities bore significant impacts. In Hitler's Germany, women faced restrictions and minorities suffered persecution. Castro's Cuba made strides in gender equality and racial justice, yet disparities persisted.
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Economic policies.
Perhaps the biggest area of difference. The Nazi state sought to reform capitalism, largely in the interests of capital (e.g. attacking trade unions) and to meet the demands of expansionist foreign policy. The Cuban state gradually sought to reform and later to abolish capitalism in order to meet the demands of socialist and later communist ideology. The main similarity between the two regimes was their attempt to reduce economic dependency on foreign powers and international trade. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Adolf Hitler's economic policies in Nazi Germany aimed to address the economic turmoil and social upheaval that plagued the country after World War I and during the Great Depression. Aims: Hitler sought to revive the German economy, which was devastated by the effects of World War I, reparations payments, hyperinflation, and the Great Depression. Hitler's economic vision included achieving autarky, or economic self-sufficiency, to reduce Germany's dependence on imports and foreign resources. This was pursued through policies such as the Four-Year Plan, which aimed to increase domestic production of raw materials and decrease reliance on foreign imports. Hitler prioritized the militarization of the German economy to prepare for territorial expansion and war in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, which had imposed strict limits on German military capabilities. Hitler's economic policies included public works programs, such as the construction of infrastructure, roads, and buildings such as The National Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst). The regime also aimed to win the support of big business by restricting the rights of workers to strike and bargain collectively, instead promoting a corporatist model of labour relations under the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront). Impact: Hitler's economic policies initially led to a significant reduction in unemployment and stimulated economic growth. Public works projects, rearmament efforts, and increased government spending contributed to improved economic conditions in the early years of Nazi rule. While the Four-Year Plan made some progress towards achieving economic self-sufficiency, it ultimately fell short of its goals. Germany remained dependent on imports for key resources, and the pursuit of autarky led to inefficiencies and resource shortages in certain sectors of the economy. Hitler's emphasis on militarization and rearmament strained Germany's economy and resources. The massive investment in the military diverted resources away from civilian sectors, contributing to shortages and inefficiencies in the production of consumer goods. Hitler's economic policies relied heavily on the exploitation of forced labour, including concentration camp inmates and occupied populations, to support the war effort and meet production quotas. This led to widespread human rights abuses and suffering among those subjected to forced labour. |
Fidel Castro's economic policies in Cuba aimed to transform the country into an independent (later socialist) state, prioritizing social welfare, and reducing dependence on capitalist influences (esp. USA) Aims: Castro aimed to establish a socialist economy in Cuba, inspired by Marxist-Leninist principles, which emphasized collective ownership of the means of production, central planning (command economy), and equitable distribution of wealth. This involved nationalizing industries e.g. Sugar Industry Ministry (MINAZ) was established in 1961, expropriating land from large landowners, and redistributing resources to benefit the Cuban people. This policy sought to address the unequal distribution of land in Cuba and empower rural communities by granting them access to land and resources. e.g. Agrarian Reform Law of 1959. Castro aimed to reduce Cuba's dependence on foreign powers, particularly the United States, and achieve economic independence and self-sufficiency. This involved diversifying the economy, promoting domestic industries, and forging alliances with socialist countries, such as the Soviet Union, for economic support and assistance. Impact: Castro's economic policies led to significant improvements in social welfare indicators in Cuba, including healthcare, education, and literacy rates. Access to healthcare and education became universal, and Cuba achieved high levels of literacy and educational attainment compared to other countries in the region. Castro's policies involved centralizing control over the economy and implementing state planning and management of key industries and resources. While this allowed the government to prioritize social welfare and national development, it also led to inefficiencies, bureaucracy, and lack of innovation in the economy. Castro's pursuit of economic independence and self-sufficiency was hampered by Cuba's reliance on economic aid and support from the Soviet Union. Cuba became heavily dependent on Soviet subsidies, trade agreements, and financial assistance, which left the country vulnerable to changes in Soviet policy and economic fluctuations. |
Political policies.
This section is best considered largely through detailed themes developed earlier as ‘consolidation and maintenance of power’. Of particular use is the legal (prerogative state) and coercive means of maintaining power and the ideologically inspired creation of a state bureaucracy in Cuba which distinguished the communist political system in Cuba. Here we simply separate aims from impact.
This section is best considered largely through detailed themes developed earlier as ‘consolidation and maintenance of power’. Of particular use is the legal (prerogative state) and coercive means of maintaining power and the ideologically inspired creation of a state bureaucracy in Cuba which distinguished the communist political system in Cuba. Here we simply separate aims from impact.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Adolf Hitler's political policies in Nazi Germany aimed to establish and consolidate a totalitarian dictatorship under the Nazi Party, eliminate political opposition, and enforce Nazi ideology across all aspects of German society. Aims: Hitler sought to eliminate all political opposition to the Nazi Party and consolidate power in the hands of the state. There was a legal dimension to this that involved banning rival political parties, such as the Communists and Social Democrats, and a coercive dimension of imprisoning or executing political opponents, including members of the opposition, intellectuals, and dissidents. Hitler aimed to coordinate all aspects of society - Gleichschaltung - including government institutions, the economy, the media, education, and culture, under Nazi control. This involved legally restructuring (prerogative state) and purging existing institutions, such as the civil service, judiciary, and military, to ensure loyalty to the Nazi regime. May 2, 1933, Nazi controlled German Labour Front replaces trade unions or People’s Courts April 1934. Hitler utilized propaganda and censorship to shape public opinion, promote Nazi ideology, and control the flow of information. Elections were held periodically to maintain a semblance of legitimacy for the regime. However, these elections were heavily manipulated, lacked genuine political competition, and were used as tools of propaganda to reinforce Nazi control e.g. 1934, plebiscite. Impact: Hitler's political policies resulted in the suppression of political dissent and the elimination of opposition voices. Political opponents were arrested, imprisoned, or killed, and civil liberties, such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly, were abolished. The Gestapo (secret police) and SS (paramilitary force) were used to enforce obedience and root out dissent. Hitler's political policies led to the establishment of a brutal dictatorship, where power was concentrated in the hands of Hitler and the Nazi Party. The Enabling Act of 1933 gave Hitler dictatorial powers to govern by decree, bypassing the Reichstag (German parliament), and effectively ending democracy in Germany. Propaganda efforts glorified Hitler as a charismatic and visionary leader, while suppressing dissent and criticism of his policies. |
Fidel Castro's political policies in Cuba eventually aimed to establish a socialist state based on Marxist-Leninist principles, consolidate power under the Communist Party of Cuba, and promote revolutionary ideals both domestically and internationally. Aims: Castro aimed to establish a one-party state dominated by the Communist Party of Cuba, which would serve as the vanguard of the revolution and guide the country's political, economic, and social development. Castro sought to centralize power in the hands of the state and the Communist Party, concentrating decision-making authority and control over all aspects of Cuban society, including government institutions, the military, and the media. Castro aimed to promote socialist ideology, including concepts of social justice, equality, and solidarity, through education, propaganda, and mass mobilization. The Cuban government emphasized the principles of Marxism-Leninism and the need for revolutionary struggle against imperialism and capitalism. Castro's political policies emphasized anti-imperialism and national sovereignty, challenging U.S. hegemony in Latin America and advocating for the rights of small nations to determine their own destiny free from external interference. Impact: Castro's political policies led to the establishment of a one-party state in Cuba, with the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) as the sole legal political organization. Department of State Security (G2) was responsible for monitoring, infiltrating, and suppressing dissent and "Military Units to Aid Production" (UMAP) re-education through labour. All other political parties and opposition groups were banned, and political dissent was suppressed. Castro's policies centralized authority in the hands of the state and the Communist Party, creating a highly centralized and authoritarian system of governance. Because of the communist nature of the state the Cuban government controlled all aspects of public life, including the economy, the media, education, and the judiciary to a greater extent than in Nazi Germany. |
Cultural Policies
One of the key features of a totalitarian state that distinguishes it from a mere authoritarian regime is the need for public mobilisation in support of its ideas. It is not enough to censor culture that might have a negative impact; culture must positively engage the masses, emotionally moving them and promoting an aesthetic that fulfils the ideological goals of the movement.
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To that end the distinctions between art and propaganda and the public and private domains begin to break down. As Stalin famously said artists must “engineers of human souls”.
The aims and impact of cultural policies in Nazi Germany and Cuba under Castro reflect the distinct ideological agendas and historical contexts of each regime. While Nazi cultural policies aimed to promote racial purity, conformity, and totalitarian control, Castro's cultural policies aimed to promote revolutionary values, cultural empowerment, and international solidarity, albeit with limitations on freedom of expression and artistic autonomy. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Aims: As a totalitarian regime the Nazis sought to mobilise culture in support of the objectives of the regime. Nazi cultural policy was an extension of The Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda had seven departments to oversee propaganda and censorship. (Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda, RMVP) Hitler aimed to promote a narrow conception of "Aryan" culture, which glorified Germanic traditions, history, and achievements. Nazi cultural policies sought to celebrate and elevate German culture as superior to all others, while denigrating and censoring art, literature, and music deemed "degenerate" or incompatible with Nazi ideology. Central to the Nazi Weltanschauung was a belief that cosmopolitan, ‘Jewish’, Weimar culture had been a corrupting influence of the German national psyche. The Nazis also aimed to direct leisure time and influence what had previously been considered people’s private life. Strength Through Joy (KdF) was an organisation that was used to control the arts and leisure. Impact: Being able to divert almost limitless funds to artistic and cultural projects enables authoritarian states to produce artefacts that would not be possible where there are normal commercial limits. Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl’s Triumph of the Will was a massive logistical exercise, well beyond the possibilities of any commercial studio at that time. Both the form and content of her work exemplified the celebration of authoritarianism. Nazi cultural policies led to the suppression of dissenting voices, artistic expression, and intellectual freedom. Many artists, writers, and intellectuals fled Germany to escape persecution, while others self-censored or collaborated with the regime to avoid punishment. The list of intellectuals, especially Jews, who left Nazi Germany is very long and includes the physicist Albert Einstein, the author Thomas Mann and the philosopher Theodor W. Adorno. Censorship was therefore a central strategy of Nazi artistic policy. Books were banned, art was removed from galleries e.g. Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) Exhibition in Munich in 1937. Nazi cultural policies promoted a homogenized, conformist culture that reinforced Nazi values and ideals. Hitler had been an artist and his architectural plans for the rebuilding of Germany obsessed him. His taste in visual arts and architecture was conservative and classical; the Nazi patronage of the sculptor Arno Breker typified this. KDF helped generate support for the regime through subsidised holidays (including the world’s first package holidays at purpose-built resorts (e.g. Prora), operatic and orchestral performances and free physical education and gymnastics training. According to the official statistics in 1934, 2.3 million people took KdF holidays and by 1938, this figure had risen to 10.3 million. |
Aims: Fidel Castro's government aimed to promote revolutionary values, Cuban nationalism, and socialist ideals through cultural policies. The regime sought to foster a sense of national pride and unity, celebrate the achievements of the revolution, and counteract the influence of capitalist and imperialist ideologies. Castro's government emphasized the importance of education as a tool for social transformation. The regime invested in public education, literacy campaigns, and cultural institutions to promote revolutionary values and combat illiteracy and ignorance. Castro's government used cultural diplomacy as a means of promoting Cuba's revolutionary ideals and building alliances with other socialist countries. Cuba provided support and solidarity to revolutionary movements around the world, using cultural exchanges, international festivals, and propaganda to promote solidarity and internationalism. Impact: Castro's cultural policies empowered marginalized groups, including Afro-Cubans and women, by promoting cultural diversity, racial equality, and gender equity. (see below) The regime implemented affirmative action policies to address historical inequalities and promote the participation of minorities and women in cultural and artistic endeavours. The legacy of Castro's cultural policies is one of cultural empowerment, social transformation, and international solidarity. The Cuban government's emphasis on education, literacy, and cultural enrichment led to significant improvements in literacy rates, educational attainment, and access to cultural resources for the Cuban people. (see social changes) The Cuban government nationalized cultural institutions, including theatres, publishing houses, and art galleries, to ensure that cultural production served the interests of the revolution. The Instituto Cubano del Arte e Industria Cinematográficos (ICAIC, Cuban Institute of Cinematographic Art and Industry) was established by the Cuban government in March 1959 after the Cuban Revolution. International cultural festivals include Havana International Ballet Festival since 1960, this biennial festival showcases the talents of Cuban ballet dancers alongside international stars. Havana International Jazz Festival since 1978. Cuban salsa music transcended national boundaries and became a global phenomenon during the 1960s and 1970s, reaching audiences around the world. Cuban musicians and bands like Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, and the Fania All-Stars played a crucial role in popularising salsa music internationally, spreading Afro-Cuban rhythms and culture to diverse audiences. |
Social Policies
Social policies, especially those dealing with women and minorities, provide us with some of the most distinctive contrasts between Nazi Germany and Castro’s Cuba. If asked to compare and contrast, you might struggle to find much to compare.
Social policies, especially those dealing with women and minorities, provide us with some of the most distinctive contrasts between Nazi Germany and Castro’s Cuba. If asked to compare and contrast, you might struggle to find much to compare.
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Social policies are deliberate attempts by a government to manage or solve perceived societal problems. Many social policies are influenced by economics and attempt to resolve social problems that have an economic root. For example, social welfare policies attempt to deal with unemployment, poor housing, or lack of access to health care.
The social policies implemented in Castro's Cuba and Hitler's Germany reflected the distinct ideological agendas and historical contexts of each regime. While Castro's social policies aimed to promote social equality, access to healthcare and education, and empowerment of marginalized groups, Hitler's social policies were characterized by racial ideology, persecution, and genocide. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Aims: Nazi youth policies aimed to indoctrinate young people with Nazi ideology, instil loyalty to Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, and prepare them to become loyal supporters of the regime. The Hitler Youth (Hitlerjugend) and the League of German Girls (BDM) were the primary organizations tasked with achieving these goals. The Nazi regime aimed to control and co-opt the Christian churches in Germany to serve its own interests. Potentially, as a rival source of people’s loyalty, the church could be a dangerous enemy. While the Nazi leadership was largely secular and hostile to organized religion, they recognized the influence of the churches and sought to manipulate them for political purposes. Impact: Nazi youth policies were highly effective in indoctrinating young Germans with Nazi ideology and propaganda. Through youth organizations, rallies, camps, and educational programs, the Nazis were able to instil a strong sense of loyalty and devotion to Hitler and the Nazi Party among young people. Nazi youth organizations played a crucial role in preparing young Germans for military service and promoting militarism and aggression as virtues. The effectiveness of this can be seen in the role of Hitler Youth in the defence of Berlin in 1945. Hitler’s socially conservative Weltanschauung and pervasive antisemitism also had wide appeal in Christian circles. From the Nazi perspective, the church had to be handled carefully. Potentially, as a rival source of people’s loyalty, the church could be a dangerous enemy. Hitler signed a Concordat (agreement) with the Catholic Church in July 1933. The Nazis attempted a similar policy of co-optation with the Protestant Church. A Reich bishop was appointed and ‘German Christians’ were appointed to key positions in the church. There were those in the Nazi Party ‘Blut und Boden' (Blood and Soil) section with leading figures such as Heinrich Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg who supported the rival pagan ‘German Faith Movement’, which had some influence. The pagans gained official recognition, their fervent promotion of the Hitler cult was welcome and even some Christian traditions – carol singing, and nativity plays – were banned. But it was always a small sect and Hitler never fully supported it. |
Aims: Castro's social policies aimed to reduce social inequalities and promote equality among the Cuban population. This included initiatives to address poverty, improve access to healthcare and education, and provide basic necessities to all citizens. While the Cuban government did not engage in widespread persecution of religious institutions, (the Catholic Church had been significantly less influential than in other South American states) it sought to control and regulate the activities of religious organizations, particularly those perceived as a threat to the revolutionary government. Impact: Castro's social policies led to significant improvements in social indicators, including healthcare outcomes, education attainment, and poverty reduction. Cuba achieved high levels of literacy, life expectancy, and low infant mortality rates compared to other countries in the region, despite limited resources and economic challenges. For example, in the 1960 Year of Education, over 300,000 children attended school for the first time. Castro's policies toward the church led to a reduction of its influence in Cuban society, particularly in the realm of education and public life. Religious institutions were subject to government oversight, and religious education was largely replaced with secular education in schools. The 1990s saw a change when 1992 Cuba officially was officially declared secular rather than atheist and the Pope visited. |
Impact of policies on women
Left-wing political theory has long had a feminist dimension that explains women’s subordination as an inevitable characteristic of capitalism. The domestic ‘reproductive labour’ of women as mothers and housekeepers is seen as an essential, but unrecognised and unpaid means of keeping production costs down. As such the question of female emancipation was very much tied up to the proposed radical reorganisation of the economy. Right-wing authoritarianism, in contrast, set out to resist the progress that women had made in the early 20th century. They harked back to the dominant 19th century view that society was naturally composed of ‘separate spheres’, a domestic or private sphere for women and a public or social sphere for men.
Left-wing political theory has long had a feminist dimension that explains women’s subordination as an inevitable characteristic of capitalism. The domestic ‘reproductive labour’ of women as mothers and housekeepers is seen as an essential, but unrecognised and unpaid means of keeping production costs down. As such the question of female emancipation was very much tied up to the proposed radical reorganisation of the economy. Right-wing authoritarianism, in contrast, set out to resist the progress that women had made in the early 20th century. They harked back to the dominant 19th century view that society was naturally composed of ‘separate spheres’, a domestic or private sphere for women and a public or social sphere for men.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Aims: Control of Women's Roles: Hitler's regime sought to control and regulate women's roles within society, promoting traditional gender norms and encouraging women to prioritize their roles as wives and mothers. Women were encouraged to stay at home and raise children, while opportunities for education and employment were limited. Results: A woman's role in society was to be focused on the three Ks: Kinder, Küche, Kirche (Children, Kitchen, Church). In 1933, 15 percent of female teachers lost their jobs, and 19 000 female civil servants were sacked. Quotas were set so that only 10 percent of university places were given to women. There was a resulting decline in female employment from 37 per cent to 31 per cent between 1933 and 1937. Family planning clinics were closed, contraception was almost impossible to find, and abortion was made illegal in 1933. The Nazi attempt to shape a national Weltanschauung in its own image through the control of arts, media, and education. The physical ideal was the ‘Aryan’ archetype: blonde, beautiful, tall, slim, and strong. Images showed ‘racially pure’ women, healthy for childbearing, usually in a domestic setting, surrounded by children. The ‘Law for the Reduction of Unemployment’ of June 1933 encouraged women to leave work on marriage, with the support of loans that provided just over half an average year's earnings. Further incentives for women to have large families included the Cross of Honour of the German Mother (1938) which awarded a bronze medal for having four children, silver for six and gold for eight or more. Family allowances of 100 Reichsmark for each child were also awarded and rail fares and school expenses were subsidised. In 1935, the Lebensborn (Spring of Life) project encouraged unmarried women with a good racial profile to become pregnant, with SS men as the fathers. |
Aims: Promotion of Gender Equality: Castro's government promoted gender equality through policies aimed at empowering women, increasing their participation in the workforce, and providing support for working mothers. The Cuban government implemented measures such as maternity leave, childcare services, and equal pay legislation to support women's rights and participation in the economy. Results: Castro's government introduced several legal reforms aimed at promoting gender equality. These included the introduction of laws against discrimination, equal pay for equal work, and the provision of maternity leave. Women's participation in politics increased significantly after the revolution. The Federation of Cuban Women (FMC), founded in 1960 under the leadership of Vilma Espín, played a central role in advocating for women's rights and promoting their political participation. As of 2011, women in Cuba made up more than 80% of university students and around 68% of university graduates. Comparatively, women made up about 57% of undergraduates in the United States in 2008. Cuba has a relatively high representation of women in its national legislature, the National Assembly of People's Power. As of 2020, women accounted for 53.2% of the deputies in the National Assembly, which is more than double the % of women in U.S. House of Representatives. (23.7%) Cuba is ranked 6th globally. Women's participation in the labour force increased, particularly in sectors traditionally dominated by men, such as medicine, education, and science. The government actively promoted women's employment and encouraged their involvement in the revolutionary project. Women's participation in the labour force in Cuba is high compared to many other countries. According to the World Bank, the female labour force participation rate in Cuba was 54.6% in 2020 (about the same as the USA but higher than most of Latin America). The revolution brought improvements in healthcare access, including reproductive healthcare services. The government implemented policies to promote family planning, maternal health, and childcare. Access to contraception and abortion improved, allowing women greater control over their reproductive choices. Before the success of the Cuban Revolution in 1959, abortion in Cuba was illegal and contraceptives inaccessible. After the creation of the FMC in 1960, efforts were made to increase the reproductive rights of women in Cuba. In 1965, abortion was decriminalized and in 1979, abortion was made free and more easily accessible. |
Impact of policies on minorities
The defining characteristic of Nazism as an authoritarian regime was its brutal treatment of minorities and, in particular, its systematic persecution of the Jews. In many ways this was a simple extension of the ideas of social Darwinism that we saw underpinning European nationalism and imperialism in the late 19th century. Castro’s Cuba was the exact opposite. Rather than rejecting the liberal concept of universal human rights, Castro rejected the liberal faith that human rights would be guaranteed by capitalist democracy. In Cuba, systemic inequalities and social exclusion have been tackled via positive discrimination.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Aims: Hitler's social policies aimed to engineer society according to Nazi racial ideology, which promoted the superiority of the "Aryan" race and the exclusion and persecution of minority groups deemed inferior, such as Jews, Roma, and disabled individuals. The Nazi concept of Volksgemeinschaft rejected the liberal concept of universal human rights. For the Nazis, not all humans were equally worthy, useful, or deserving Volksgenossen (social compatriots) and, consequently, had to be treated differently. Nazi concepts of racial degeneracy and social deviance (behaviour that violated social norms) were rooted in a similar pseudoscientific explanations that ultimately reduced everything to the importance of ‘blood’. They believed that, because of their hereditary bloodline, Germans were the ‘Aryan’ Herrenvolk (master race), as were other Germanic peoples, including the English and Scandinavians. The French and northern Italians were considered to be Germanic. However, Slavs (including Poles, Serbs, and Russians) and Jews were described as Untermenschen ‘subhumans’, who were destined to be enslaved or eliminated by the Herrenvolk. Hitler's government implemented eugenics programs aimed at promoting "racial hygiene" and "purifying" the German gene pool. This included forced sterilization of individuals deemed "genetically defective" and measures to encourage "racially pure" individuals to procreate. Impact: Hitler's policies created social divisions and hierarchies based on racial and ethnic identity, with "Aryan" Germans placed at the top of the hierarchy and minority groups subjected to discrimination, segregation, and violence. This led to the persecution, antisemitic laws and actions were gradual but grew in their significance. Two important examples were the 1935 Nuremburg Laws which deprived German Jews of citizenship and forbade marriage or sexual relations between Jews and German citizens, and in the November 1938 attack on synagogues and Jewish property, Kristallnacht. In the end this led to the genocide of millions of Jews, Roma, disabled individuals, and other minority groups during the Holocaust. |
Aims: In Cuba, policies aimed at assisting social minorities have been implemented with the overarching goal of promoting social justice, equality, and inclusion. These policies target marginalized groups such as Afro-Cubans, women, people with disabilities, and those from low-income backgrounds. In March 1959 Fidel Castro announced in a speech (Proclamation against discrimination) he would attempt to end racial discrimination in Cuban society. Impact: Castro repealed all pre-1959 laws that allowed or enforced racial discrimination. He also closed down separate Black associations and societies. Legal protections against racial discrimination are enshrined in the Cuban Constitution, and measures have been taken to address racial disparities in employment, housing, and other areas. Its wide-reaching economic and social reforms clearly benefited the majority of Afro-Cubans who were the lowest on the social scale. Access to housing, education and health services improved dramatically, as did the representation of black people among a wider range of professions. Afro-Cuban women have been particular beneficiaries of the revolution’s progressive social legislation, gaining much-improved employment opportunities. Afro-Cubans are well represented in various levels of government and leadership positions. The Cuban government has implemented measures to promote diversity and inclusion in political institutions, resulting in the election of Afro-Cuban representatives and officials. Afro-Cuban culture and heritage are celebrated and promoted throughout Cuban society. Afro-Cuban music, dance, and art play a significant role in national identity and cultural expression, highlighting the contributions of Afro-Cubans to Cuban culture. |
Extent to which authoritarian control achieved.
An authoritarian state that exercises most control is a totalitarian state. There are four characteristics that distinguish totalitarianism from authoritarianism, and it is clear that both Hitler’s Germany and Castrol’s Cuba qualify as totalitarian regimes on each criterion:
- The intensity and effectiveness of the authoritarianism in the regime.
- The importance of ideology as a key feature of the regime
- The extent to which rival non-state actors are tolerated or weakened by the regime.
- The level of public engagement that is expected in support of the regime.
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Totalitarianism is not ‘worse’ that authoritarianism, it is simply a measure of degree of state control over the individual and fits the IB concern with the ‘extent to which authoritarian control achieved’. For example, all authoritarian states use propaganda that seeks to promote social solidarity and some degree of social depoliticisation, but only totalitarian regimes seek a social transformation through the propagandisation of culture and the arts.
In conclusion, it is hard to say which was more totalitarian. Theoretically Cuba had a wider range of controls because of the direct state control over so much of Cuban economic and social life and because the state was altogether more invasive. But Nazi Germany oppression was particularly efficient. It should also be noted that the degree of social control achieved does not on its own explain how effective or indeed how popular the regime was. As we have seen, the most effective form of social control happens when the citizen voluntarily consents to be governed and both Cuba and Nazi Germany enjoyed considerable popular support.
In conclusion, it is hard to say which was more totalitarian. Theoretically Cuba had a wider range of controls because of the direct state control over so much of Cuban economic and social life and because the state was altogether more invasive. But Nazi Germany oppression was particularly efficient. It should also be noted that the degree of social control achieved does not on its own explain how effective or indeed how popular the regime was. As we have seen, the most effective form of social control happens when the citizen voluntarily consents to be governed and both Cuba and Nazi Germany enjoyed considerable popular support.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
The key feature of Nazi totalitarianism was the efficacy of the state control. When compared to Mussolini’s Italy for example, the German state was simply more effective in getting citizens to carry out desired actions and efficient at carrying out centralised decisions. The Gestapo and SS were very good at what they did. Ideology was central to the Nazi state and as we have seen policies were carried out in line with ideology rather than mere pragmatism. A good example of this were the various socio-cultural policies associated with women’s rights. For ideological reasons women were denied a role in contributing to the war effort until late into the war. This was economically harmful. Rival non-state actors were only tolerated when they were politically benign or co-opted. Trade unions, the church, other political parties, youth organisations, independent arts and media were neutralised or directly controlled by the state. Free time and leisure became usefully directed (KDF) and individuals were expected to report on their neighbours. Enthusiastic public engagement was expected at every level in society, as was explicit conformity in day-to-day life. The displaying of Nazi flags or expected greeting of ‘Heil Hitler’ were a good illustration of this and dissent was hard to express. The Nuremberg rallies and enthusiastic contributions to voluntary party social organisations were also good examples. |
The central difference with Castro’s totalitarianism when compared to Nazi Germany is the extent to which the state controlled the minutiae of everyday life. When the state via the command economy controls employment, housing, healthcare, education, and food, behaving in such a way as to gain preferential access to these resources becomes second nature. This is an indirect form of total control. The apparently compliant citizen is actually acting rationally because it their own or their family’s best interest to act in this way. The interest of the state and the interests of the citizen correspond so closely that the individual may not even be aware of being controlled. The ideology as in Nazi Germany is central to everything that state sets out to achieve. But in Cuba the ideology is based on an optimistic view of human nature that aspires to social and economic equality and cooperative, universal ideals of justice. Rival non-state actors are not tolerated in Cuba, but in reality, there is probably less of them. Opponents have chosen exile in their hundreds of thousands. In addition, the Cuban state successfully generated widespread consent through genuinely popular socio-political measures that have transformed Cuba for the better. If there are enthusiastic displays of support for the regime, the Party bureaucratic nomenklatura have every reason to engage in this public support, as do ordinary members of the public hoping to gain access to monopoly state resources. |
... and a final word.
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