IB Paper 2 - Topic 10: Authoritarian states - Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba - A comparative analysis
This is the longest page on my website, sorry. It is my attempt to provide you with everything you might need to answer any exam question from Paper 2 on Topic 10: Authoritarian States.
This comparative analysis is not what generally happens in history lessons and is not something provided by any of the textbooks that have so far been produced. There is a good reason for this. Historians don’t usually do this sort of thing and history teachers are uncomfortable doing it. Historians tend to be specialists of particular times and places. It is sociologists and political scientists who do the generalisations and categorisations, typologies and comparisons that this type of exam requires (see videos below). |
History teachers generally spend their time teaching about one authoritarian state after another. You have probably spent many weeks studying each authoritarian state in turn. But in the exam you have to plan and write a comparative analysis of two authoritarian states in only 45 minutes! You need to be prepared.
There are always three sections to a Paper 2 topic and the two essays in the exam are based on two of those three topics (see left). The questions usually require you to compare and contrast two states, often from different regions. (see past paper questions). Germany and Cuba provide two authoritarian state case studies from different IB regions and very different ideological perspectives. Despite the obvious differences there are plenty of similarites to consider. Ideally you should use this section as a model to produce your own comparative analysis of the authoritarian states you have studied in class. You can download some blank templates here.
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In what follows I do three things.
- Firstly, I summarise the main points of similarity and difference between the two regimes for each of the three sections of the syllabus.
- Secondly, in a short film I explain in general what each section of the prescribed content means (e.g. what is coercion ).
- Finally, I explain in more detail how each case study illustrates that particular part of the syllabus.
Section 1 - Emergence (Rise to Power) – Hitler and Castro
(Download printable version)
(Download printable version)
Summary
Similarities: Hitler and Castro capitalized on widespread socioeconomic discontent within their respective societies to gain popular support for their movements. Hitler exploited the economic hardships and political instability of post-World War. Both leaders appealed to nationalist sentiments to rally support for their causes. Hitler's Nazism exalted German nationalism and sought to restore Germany's greatness through territorial expansion and racial purity. Castro's Cuban Revolution emphasized national sovereignty and anti-imperialism, calling for the liberation of Cuba from foreign domination, particularly U.S. influence. Both were typical of their time: Hitler was part of a European authoritarian rejection of pre-war liberal capitalism; Castro was part of a global anti-colonial movement which had begun in India and South-East Asia. Germany, promising to restore national pride and prosperity. Castro capitalized on the grievances of marginalized groups in Batista's Cuba, such as the rural poor and urban working class, who suffered under a corrupt and repressive regime. Both Hitler and Castro possessed strong charismatic leadership qualities that allowed them to inspire and mobilize supporters. They were powerful orators who effectively conveyed their visions for radical change and captured the imagination of their followers.
Differences: Castro distinguished himself as a guerrilla leader in the mountains of Cuba, leading the struggle against the Batista regime. His military leadership and tactical intelligence contributed to the success of the revolution and earned him widespread admiration among supporters. Hitler’s failed coup in 1923 led him to change strategies and develop a powerful political persona in order to win power using the democratic system. Through his oratory skills and mastery of propaganda techniques, he centralized power in himself and the Nazi Party, surrounding himself with loyalists and eliminated potential rivals through purges and intimidation. The international contexts of Hitler's and Castro's rise to power differed significantly. Hitler's rise occurred amidst the aftermath of World War I and the Great Depression, while Castro's revolution unfolded in the context of Cold War rivalries and anti-imperialist movements in Latin America. Hitler came to power through legal means within the framework of the Weimar Republic's democratic system, albeit through manipulation and exploitation of the political process. In contrast, Castro's rise to power was achieved through armed revolution, overthrowing the Batista regime by force. While both leaders pursued radical transformations of their societies, their ideological orientations were fundamentally different. Hitler's Nazism was rooted in extreme nationalism, racism, and anti-Semitism, aiming to establish a dictatorship based on Aryan supremacy. In contrast, Castro's communism was inspired by Marxist-Leninist ideology, advocating for the establishment of a socialist state that prioritized social equality and collective ownership of resources.
Similarities: Hitler and Castro capitalized on widespread socioeconomic discontent within their respective societies to gain popular support for their movements. Hitler exploited the economic hardships and political instability of post-World War. Both leaders appealed to nationalist sentiments to rally support for their causes. Hitler's Nazism exalted German nationalism and sought to restore Germany's greatness through territorial expansion and racial purity. Castro's Cuban Revolution emphasized national sovereignty and anti-imperialism, calling for the liberation of Cuba from foreign domination, particularly U.S. influence. Both were typical of their time: Hitler was part of a European authoritarian rejection of pre-war liberal capitalism; Castro was part of a global anti-colonial movement which had begun in India and South-East Asia. Germany, promising to restore national pride and prosperity. Castro capitalized on the grievances of marginalized groups in Batista's Cuba, such as the rural poor and urban working class, who suffered under a corrupt and repressive regime. Both Hitler and Castro possessed strong charismatic leadership qualities that allowed them to inspire and mobilize supporters. They were powerful orators who effectively conveyed their visions for radical change and captured the imagination of their followers.
Differences: Castro distinguished himself as a guerrilla leader in the mountains of Cuba, leading the struggle against the Batista regime. His military leadership and tactical intelligence contributed to the success of the revolution and earned him widespread admiration among supporters. Hitler’s failed coup in 1923 led him to change strategies and develop a powerful political persona in order to win power using the democratic system. Through his oratory skills and mastery of propaganda techniques, he centralized power in himself and the Nazi Party, surrounding himself with loyalists and eliminated potential rivals through purges and intimidation. The international contexts of Hitler's and Castro's rise to power differed significantly. Hitler's rise occurred amidst the aftermath of World War I and the Great Depression, while Castro's revolution unfolded in the context of Cold War rivalries and anti-imperialist movements in Latin America. Hitler came to power through legal means within the framework of the Weimar Republic's democratic system, albeit through manipulation and exploitation of the political process. In contrast, Castro's rise to power was achieved through armed revolution, overthrowing the Batista regime by force. While both leaders pursued radical transformations of their societies, their ideological orientations were fundamentally different. Hitler's Nazism was rooted in extreme nationalism, racism, and anti-Semitism, aiming to establish a dictatorship based on Aryan supremacy. In contrast, Castro's communism was inspired by Marxist-Leninist ideology, advocating for the establishment of a socialist state that prioritized social equality and collective ownership of resources.
Conditions
What the IB identifies as the 'conditions' which bring authoritarian states to power are a series of structural factors that create a context that makes the rise to power of an authoritarian state more likely. Put simply, authoritarian regimes are unusual in countries that are rich, socially stable and that have a tradition of constitutionally limited, civilian government. If they do emerge in these sorts of countries, it is usually the result of a crisis situation brought about by external factors such as war or international economic crisis. The IB syllabus identifies four aspects to this: economic instability, social division, political weakness and war. |
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Economic factors can help bring to power authoritarian states for a variety of reasons. Economic crises can create social unrest and dissatisfaction among the populace who consequently seek a change in government. Authoritarian leaders may exploit this discontent by offering stability and strong leadership as a solution to economic woes.
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Economic elites may support authoritarian regimes if they perceive them as protecting their interests, such as maintaining favourable business conditions, suppressing labour movements, or safeguarding their wealth from redistribution. This was the case in 1930s Germany.
Alternatively, income inequality can lead to feelings of resentment and marginalization among certain segments of the population and corruption can undermine trust in institutions and political processes. Authoritarian leaders may capitalize on this by promising to address inequality and redistribute wealth, promising to root out corruption and establish order, gaining support from those disillusioned with the existing system. This was the case in Cuba. |
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Germany was particularly badly hit by the global depression, because it was dangerously exposed to American loans that were provided (Dawes 1924, Young 1928) in order to enable Germany to pay First World War reparations. It was the 1930s Depression that created the political crisis that Weimar Germany could not resolve. There is a direct correlation between rising unemployment in Weimar Germany after 1929 and an increase in the number of votes for anti-democratic parties. In 1932, the peak of the Depression, unemployment in Germany stood at over 30%. In the July 1932 Reichstag elections, the Nazis became the largest party, winning over 37% of the vote. The Nazi party forged close ties with German industrialists and corporate interests. Economic elites, fearing the spread of socialism and communism, often aligned themselves with Hitler's authoritarian regime, seeing it as a bulwark against leftist movements and labour unrest. Thyssen was a prominent German industrialist and steel magnate who provided significant financial support to the Nazi Party in the early 1930s. Alfred Hugenberg was a media mogul and one of Germany's wealthiest industrialists. Hugenberg's financial support played a crucial role in bolstering the Nazi Party's influence in the media and shaping public opinion. Hitler’s Nazis promised to end unemployment and revive the German economy. Hitler pledged to create jobs through large-scale public works projects, infrastructure development, and military expansion. |
Economic factors did not directly trigger the revolution in Cuba, but they did create a context of instability. Cuba was characterized by extreme economic inequality, with a small elite (often foreign) controlling much of the country's wealth and resources while the majority of the population lived in poverty. In the 1950s the price of sugar declined causing recessions. Unemployment was 17% in 1957. This inequality was exacerbated by the dominance of American-owned businesses in key sectors of the Cuban economy e.g. United Fruit Company was one of the largest American corporations in Cuba criticized for their exploitative labour practices. Standard Oil (ESSO), one of the largest oil companies in the world at the time, had substantial interests in Cuba's oil industry. Cuba had become dependent on the USA buying sugar at inflated prices in return for which the USA got preferential access to Cuban markets. The economic grievances of the Cuban people were compounded by widespread discontent with the corrupt and repressive regime of Fulgencio Batista, who ruled Cuba with the support of the United States. Batista's regime was widely perceived as serving the interests of the elite while neglecting the needs of the majority. Fidel Castro and the revolutionary movement promised to address Cuba's economic inequalities and improve the living standards of the Cuban people. Castro's revolutionary platform included land reform, nationalization of key industries, and the redistribution of wealth to benefit the Cuban population as a whole. |
Social Division
Social division is concerned with how divisions between groups of people in society make it difficult for the state to peacefully manage a community of competing interests. Social division comes in many forms: class, religious, ethnic, tribal, national, linguistic, gender, age etc. Undoubtedly, one of the most important social divisions behind the rise to power of modern authoritarian is class. The rise of the new industrial working class, with its demands for democratic representation, fundamentally threatened the continuing domination by economic, social, and political elites. |
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The authoritarian regimes that emerged in the early 20th century were either authoritarian states claiming to be representing the interests of working class/peasants against the old elites or authoritarian states that protected the interests of old elites against the revolutionary demands of the working class/peasants. The former were generally communist (Castro) and the latter varieties of fascist (Hitler).
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Germany's society was deeply stratified along class lines, with significant disparities in wealth, privilege, and opportunity. Germany's regional diversity and disparities in economic development contributed to social divisions within the country. The Nazi Party’s strongest support base was often in economically depressed regions, such as the industrial Ruhr Valley, where unemployment and social dislocation were particularly acute. The interwar period also witnessed tensions between different generations, with older Germans often clinging to traditional values and institutions while younger generations embraced new ideas and ideologies. The Nazis appealed to disaffected urban youth with promises of radical change and national renewal, but also appealed to older, rural conservatives with their rejection of the perceived decadence of the Weimar era. Germany was a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural society, but the rise of Nazism was accompanied by increasing intolerance towards minority groups, particularly Jews, Roma, and other marginalized communities. The Nazi Party exploited these social divisions by portraying itself as the champion of the "Volksgemeinschaft" (people's community). |
The social divisions in Cuba were even more pronounced than in Germany and accentuated by US economic imperialism. A small elite controlled much of the country's wealth and resources while the majority of the population lived in poverty. Latifundia were common in pre-revolutionary Cuba. These vast estates, typically sugar plantations were owned by wealthy individuals, foreign companies, or absentee landlords, controlled significant portions of the country's arable land. American corporations, owned up to 25-30% of Cuba's agricultural land. In addition, corruption during the Baptista regime permeated all levels of society, undermining public trust in the government and exacerbating social inequalities. Many rural areas lacked basic infrastructure and social services, exacerbating poverty and inequality in the countryside. Educational opportunities were limited for many Cubans, particularly those from marginalized communities. Racial discrimination and inequality were pervasive in Cuban society, with Afro-Cubans facing systemic discrimination in employment, housing, education, and other areas. Access to quality education was often determined by socio-economic status, with wealthier families having greater access to educational resources and opportunities. Roughly 20-24% of the population was illiterate at that time. |
Weakness of the political system
Political factors that contribute to the rise of authoritarian regimes are concerned with governance and power. A state that is failing politically to control its territory is in danger of being overthrown. If in addition a country has little or no tradition of constitutional government or if democratic government has been discredited by an inability to govern effectively, then it is more likely that authoritarian regimes will come to power. |
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Both Weimar Germany and Batista’s Cuba were weakened political systems but for very different reasons. Weimar Germany was a model democratic system whose legitimacy was undermined by a failure to deal with a socio-economic crisis. Batista’s Cuba was an authoritarian regime was legitimacy was undermined by political injustice, corruption, and an absence of accountable government. Another key difference between the two regimes was that Hitler came to power through a democratic system, even if neither Germany nor Cuba had an established democratic tradition. |
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Students are often encouraged to identify potential weaknesses in the fact the electoral system of proportional representation (PR) allowed smaller extremist political parties like the Nazis to have a national voice and that Article 48 of the constitution allowed the president to rule by decree without the consent of the Reichstag (parliament), but the reality is that the political system only really began to fail after the onset of the Depression in 1930. Post-war Weimar democracy struggled to survive. But it did survive, despite 'weak' PR induced coalition governments and presidents Ebert and von Hindenburg both using infamous Article 48. The lack of a well-established ‘participant’ or democratic political culture meant that was little understanding of or support for the sort of liberal traditions and institutions to be found elsewhere in western Europe. Nazis and Communists had paramilitary wings that engaged in ritual disruption and intimidation of rival meetings that meant that elections were never completely free or fair. If we are going to identify the most important political causes of Hitler's rise to power, they are to be found less in the underlying structural weaknesses of the constitution and more in the actions of the political elites in the period immediately before 1933 who helped Hitler into power. (See methods ideology below) |
Batista ruled through military dictatorship, having seized power in a coup d'état in 1952. Political opposition was effectively silenced through intimidation, violence, and the curtailment of civil liberties, creating an atmosphere of fear and mistrust. Political opposition was marginalized and excluded from the political process, depriving ordinary Cubans of meaningful representation and participation in decision-making. The absence of democratic institutions and mechanisms further undermined the legitimacy of the government. The Batista regime was notorious for its corruption and cronyism, with government officials and business elites enriching themselves at the expense of the Cuban people. Political favouritism and nepotism were widespread, leading to the concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a small elite. The Batista regime was heavily dependent on foreign interests, particularly American corporations, and organized crime syndicates, which had significant influence over Cuba's economy and politics. Foreign-owned companies controlled key sectors of the economy, including sugar production, tourism, and gambling, while exerting considerable influence over government. In the end the unwillingness of the American government to continue to support the Batista regime was critical to the success of Castro’s rise to power. |
War
For democracy to be effective there must be a culture of toleration, compromise, and open rational debate, a peaceful social interaction that revolves around the participation of individuals who respect each other’s human rights. War produces just the opposite condition. War needs individuals subsumed to the interests of the group: the nation and the fatherland. It is the emotions of patriotism and hatred of the other, not reason and empathy that are the most welcome characteristics.
And for those who actually do the fighting and the killing, there are the long-term effects of social alienation, dehumanization and comradeship which can make it very difficult to re-adjust to peacetime conditions and civilian authority.Authoritarian states are regularly created in the aftermath of wars, civil wars, and coup d’états, where the role of the military has been essential to the successful creation of an authoritarian regime. The existence of a sympathetic section of the army or a well-armed civilian population is often essential to the revolutionary capture of a state and this militarised state is most commonly found in time of war. When the new regime is established, it will naturally retain some of the characteristics of its foundation: militaristic cultural values such as loyalty and discipline, a respect for military authority and military leaders reluctant to hand over authority to civilian leaders.
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
War was important in helping to form Hitler as a character and those who supported the Nazis. It also helped to create the economic instability that the Nazis exploited (see above). But unlike in Italy and Russia, war did not have a direct impact on the rise to power. Hitler's experience as a soldier during World War I was formative in his political radicalization. The disillusionment and trauma of war, combined with Germany's defeat and the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, fuelled Hitler's resentment towards the Weimar Republic and his belief in the stab-in-the-back myth. Many ex-soldiers were attracted to the Nazi Party’s emphasis on militarism and its vision of a powerful, disciplined society. Hitler's paramilitary organization, the Sturmabteilung (SA) attracted those who sought a sense of purpose and belonging in their ranks. They helped organise the street violence, rallies, and demonstrations to intimidate political opponents and spread their message. But it is important to remember that the attempted military uprising in Munich 1923 failed. The financial cost of World War I imposed a heavy burden on Germany's economy. The war effort drained the country's resources, depleted its gold reserves, and led to soaring levels of public debt. The German government resorted to borrowing heavily, both domestically and internationally. The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, imposed reparations set at £6,600m. The government implemented austerity measures and fiscal reforms. These measures included cuts to public spending, tax increases, and efforts to balance the budget. However, austerity measures also contributed to social hardship and exacerbated inequalities. |
Although Castro’s rise to power did not come about as a consequence of a major war, it did come about as a result of an armed uprising and the use of a guerrilla war strategies. (see methods below. |
Methods
Force (coercion).
If we are forced to, we might argue that the context in which authoritarianism arose in Germany and Cuba were more similar than the methods employed by the historical agents who brought about change. This is because the methods employed are so clearly different.
Force (coercion).
If we are forced to, we might argue that the context in which authoritarianism arose in Germany and Cuba were more similar than the methods employed by the historical agents who brought about change. This is because the methods employed are so clearly different.
Hitler came to power through largely democratic and constitutional means and was largely (albeit accidentally) helped into power by powerful forces amongst the German elite, whereas Castro came to power through violent means and was resisted every step of the way by the powerful elites.
This distinction might hold for left wing and right-wing authoritarianism in general. Powerful elites when faced with a socio-economic crisis turn to the anti-communist (populist) right in order to avoid a revolution that will threaten their hold on power. This is, of course, an oversimplification and you will find plenty of similarities in the methods employed below, but… |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Hitler infamously failed to achieve power through an armed coup (putsch) in Munich in 1923 and from 1924 apparently committed the Nazis to constitutional route to power through winning elections. The Wall Street Crash and Great Depression transformed the party’s electoral success and in 1933 Hitler was appointed chancellor but… Throughout the 1920s, the SA engaged in acts of political violence and intimidation against rival political parties, particularly communists and socialists. SA members frequently clashed with left-wing groups in street battles and skirmishes, aiming to assert Nazi dominance and suppress opposition. The use of violence helped to create an atmosphere of fear and instability, which benefited the Nazis by undermining confidence in the Weimar Republic and traditional political institutions. The violence was particularly important during elections. Military leaders and the German ruling class feared that escalating political violence and radicalization could lead to civil war. Given this context, some military leaders (and Hjalmar Schacht and von Papen) saw the appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933 as a way to restore order and stability to Germany, even if it meant making compromises with the Nazi Party. Violence was also central to what happened immediately after Hitler was elected. The role of the SA during the Reichstag Fire crisis and passing of the Enabling Act marked the end of the democratic route to power and the beginnings of coercive consolidation. |
As in Germany there was an initial failure in the armed uprising, i.e. Battle of Moncada Barracks (July 26, 1953). But unlike in Germany, the military struggle continued. Granma Landing (December 2, 1956): The Granma landing marked the beginning of the armed phase of the Cuban Revolution. Fidel Castro, along with Che Guevara established a guerrilla base in the Sierra Maestra mountains and began organizing the resistance against the Batista regime. Battle of Santa Clara (December 28-30, 1958): Che Guevara led a column of rebel forces in an assault on the city of Santa Clara, which was a key strategic stronghold held by Batista's army. The capture of Santa Clara effectively signalled the end of Batista's regime and paved the way for the collapse of his government. Siege of Santiago de Cuba (January 1-2, 1959): The city was besieged by Castro's forces, who launched a final assault on Batista's stronghold. After two days of heavy fighting, Batista's army surrendered, and Santiago de Cuba fell to the rebels. The capture of Santiago de Cuba marked the culmination of the revolution and the beginning of Fidel Castro's rule in Cuba. |
Propaganda (influence)
The role of propaganda was central to the rise to power of both regimes. Despite the different methods followed (‘democratic’ v military) both processes were very popular and to some extent this popularity is to be explained by the appeal of the respective party ideas and the effectiveness of the propaganda message. Given the importance of winning electoral support and the brilliant effectiveness of Goebbels' campaigns it might be argued that propaganda was more important in Germany. In Cuba, action was more important than words and propaganda was more about motivating supporters to act rather than persuading citizens to vote. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Hitler and the Nazi Party organized large-scale mass rallies and events to attract supporters and project an image of strength and unity. Events like the annual Nuremberg Rallies were carefully choreographed to showcase Hitler as a charismatic leader capable of uniting the German people. The Nazi Party utilized various forms of mass media, including newspapers and posters, to disseminate its message and promote Hitler as a strong and visionary leader. Joseph Goebbels played a key role in controlling the flow of information and shaping public opinion in favour of the Nazis. Der Stürmer (The Attacker) was a weekly newspaper founded by Julius Streicher in 1923 that became notorious for its extreme anti-Semitic content. Hitler was portrayed as a messianic figure and the saviour of the German people (see below). Propaganda emphasized his charisma, leadership qualities, and ability to restore Germany's greatness. Hitler's image was carefully crafted to evoke strong emotions and inspire loyalty among his followers. |
How propaganda was used reflected the fact that Cuba was not an open, urban, literate democratic society like Weimar Germany had been. The Cuban media was subject to censorship and control by the Batista government. Propaganda was important within the movement. Fidel Castro used grassroots organizing, word-of-mouth communication, and direct engagement with communities. International media coverage, solidarity movements, and support from sympathetic governments and organizations played a crucial role in shaping perceptions of the revolution and influencing public opinion both within Cuba and abroad. The Cuban revolutionary movement utilized illegal radio broadcasts (Radio Rebelde), pamphlets and manifestos (e.g. March 12, 1958), posters, and public speeches. These forms of communication were often more accessible and effective in reaching the broader population, especially in rural areas where literacy rates may have been lower. |
Leaders
The IB’s emphasis on the role of leaders requires us to consider the actions of both Hitler and Castro in their ‘emergence’. But we should also be aware that in taking power, they were also removing leaders who had through their actions (or inactions) failed to hold on to power. The actions of von Papen and Hindenburg in Germany (see above) and Fulgencio Batista in Cuba also need to be considered.
Hitler and Castro shared obvious similarities as ‘charismatic’ orators who engendered loyal, sometimes fanatical support from their followers. But they also had significant differences that reflected the distinctive military (Castro) and civilian (Hitler) rise to power. Much of what is written above also needs to be seen in terms of the actions of Hitler and Castro in either exploiting opportunities or initiating successful strategies. |
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Hitler |
Castro |
Following his release from prison in 1924, Hitler focused on rebuilding and reorganizing the Nazi Party, which had been banned after the failed Munich Putsch in 1923. He restructured the party, expanded its membership, and turned into a nationally organised party. He focused on participating in elections, building alliances with other right-wing parties, and exploiting the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic's democratic system. Hitler and the Nazi Party utilized propaganda and mass rallies to spread their message, promote Nazi ideology, and attract supporters. Joseph Goebbels played a central role in orchestrating propaganda campaigns that portrayed Hitler as a strong and charismatic leader who could solve Germany's problems. In January 1933, Hitler negotiated his position and held out until President Paul von Hindenburg appointed him Chancellor of Germany. Hjalmar Schacht and von Papen also played an important role in persuading Hindenburg that Hitler could be controlled. After becoming Chancellor, Hitler moved quickly to consolidate his power and dismantle democratic institutions. The Reichstag Fire in February 1933 provided a pretext for suppressing political opposition, and the passage of the Enabling Act in March 1933 gave Hitler dictatorial powers, allowing him to govern by decree and effectively eliminate all opposition. |
Fidel Castro emerged as a prominent leader of the 26th of July Movement, which sought to overthrow the authoritarian regime of Fulgencio Batista. The movement was named after the failed attack on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago de Cuba on July 26, 1953, which marked the beginning of Castro's revolutionary activities. In December 1956, Castro and a small group of revolutionaries, including Che Guevara, returned to Cuba and launched a guerrilla war from the Sierra Maestra mountains. (see above for details) Castro's revolutionary movement gained widespread support among peasants, workers, students, and intellectuals who were disillusioned with Batista's dictatorship and inspired by Castro's vision of social justice and national liberation. The 26th of July Movement capitalized on popular discontent and mobilized support through propaganda, recruitment drives, and appeals to nationalist sentiments. The 26th of July Movement used propaganda to spread their message and garner support for the revolution. They emphasized revolutionary ideals such as social justice, anti-imperialism, and agrarian reform, while demonising Batista as a corrupt dictator in the pay of American interests. |
Ideology
As the film opposite makes clear, the importance of ideology in a regime is one of the most important features of a totalitarian (as opposed to mere authoritarian) regime. This final section is concerned with the ideas embodied in the two revolutionary movements and why these ideas appealed to large numbers of people. Ideology was clearly important to both and although the ideas were in principle ideologically opposed, they could appeal to similarly wide group of people. In both ideologies – German Nazism and Cuban socialism – there was a nationalist dimension that rejected foreign influence in the country. Less obvious was the rejection of liberal capitalism that was also common to both. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
On coming to power, Hitler like Mussolini had broad appeal. Nazism had its believers; it was an untested ideology that enjoyed the attraction of the new and modern. The rejection of democracy was central to Nazi ideology, and this appealed to important people. The ruling elite of politicians and civil servants, military and business leaders who had come to prominence during the time of the Emperor and the Second Reich had little time for democracy and feared the rise of communism. In addition, the Weimar Republic's ground-breaking developments in various artistic and intellectual fields was accompanied by a social and sexual liberation which many conservatives found deeply unsettling. Nazism was able to draw on those sentiments of nostalgia and nationalism and provide an ideological vision that combined these traditional conservative goals with a revolutionary vitalism, anti-leftism, and the belief in a strong leader. During the Great Depression, when Germany was suffering from mass unemployment, hyperinflation, and economic hardship, the Nazis promised to revive the economy, create jobs, and restore prosperity. Anti-Semitism propagated by the Nazis struck a chord with many Germans who were susceptible to scapegoating and conspiracy theories. Nazi propaganda blamed Jews for Germany’s economic woes portrayed them as parasites and traitors and advocated for their exclusion and eventual extermination. |
Castro's socialist revolution was framed as a struggle for national liberation and sovereignty, particularly against the legacy of U.S. intervention in Cuban affairs. At the beginning it was more nationalist (Cubiana) than socialist. The government prioritized national development and self-sufficiency, promoting Cuban culture, identity, and independence from external influences. Castro's opposition to U.S. imperialism and his commitment to national sovereignty resonated with many Cubans who were disillusioned with American dominance in Latin America. Castro's defiance of U.S. influence and his willingness to challenge American hegemony in the region earned him support from anti-imperialist movements worldwide. Castro's socialist ideology emphasized the need for social justice, equality, and solidarity. His revolutionary government implemented policies aimed at addressing longstanding inequalities in Cuban society, including land redistribution, nationalization of industries, and expansion of social welfare programs. These measures appealed to peasants, workers, and marginalized groups who had long suffered from economic exploitation and social discrimination. |
Section 2 - Consolidation and maintenance of power – Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba
(Download printable version)
(Download printable version)
Having got into power, what does an authoritarian regime do next? In order to understand how the authoritarian state consolidates its power you need to appreciate the concepts of coercion, persuasion and consent, formal and informal social control which are the means through which all states manage to exercise control over individual citizens and civil society. The short lecture (below) explains.
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Summary
Similarities: Both regimes exhibited elements of totalitarian control, aiming to centralize power under a single leader and suppress opposition. Both regimes employed a series of legal methods to consolidate power. They used propaganda, censorship, and surveillance to maintain control over their respective populations. Both regimes relied on authoritarian governance, with power concentrated in the hands of the leader and their inner circle. They employed secret police and paramilitary organizations to enforce their rule and suppress dissent. Both regimes engaged in widespread political repression, imprisoning, or executing political opponents, dissidents, and perceived enemies of the state. They targeted specific ethnic or political groups, such as Jews in Nazi Germany and landowners, businesses, and political dissidents in Castro's Cuba.
Differences: Ideology matters. Hitler's regime was based on a racist ideology of Aryan supremacy, anti-Semitism, and expansionist nationalism, while Castro's regime was founded on Marxist-Leninist principles of socialism and anti-imperialism. The Nazi regime under Hitler systematically perpetrated genocide against Jews, Romani people, disabled individuals, and other minority groups, resulting in the Holocaust. Castro's regime, while engaging in political repression and human rights abuses, did not commit genocide. Castro's regime implemented socialist economic policies, including nationalization of industries and collectivisation of agriculture, leading to a state-controlled economy. This allowed more totalitarian control in Cuba because the state (Communist party) controlled access to important jobs and services such as state-run shops, housing, education, and health care. Access to these goods was a reward for loyalty, especially for party members who worked for the state (nomenklatura). Hitler's economic policies combined elements of state control with private ownership, focusing on rearmament and public works projects to combat unemployment. This also generated support but because private businesses continued to exist, the state did not have as much direct control over people’s lives. In contrast to communist Cuba, access to goods and services continued to depend on an ability of citizens to pay.
Similarities: Both regimes exhibited elements of totalitarian control, aiming to centralize power under a single leader and suppress opposition. Both regimes employed a series of legal methods to consolidate power. They used propaganda, censorship, and surveillance to maintain control over their respective populations. Both regimes relied on authoritarian governance, with power concentrated in the hands of the leader and their inner circle. They employed secret police and paramilitary organizations to enforce their rule and suppress dissent. Both regimes engaged in widespread political repression, imprisoning, or executing political opponents, dissidents, and perceived enemies of the state. They targeted specific ethnic or political groups, such as Jews in Nazi Germany and landowners, businesses, and political dissidents in Castro's Cuba.
Differences: Ideology matters. Hitler's regime was based on a racist ideology of Aryan supremacy, anti-Semitism, and expansionist nationalism, while Castro's regime was founded on Marxist-Leninist principles of socialism and anti-imperialism. The Nazi regime under Hitler systematically perpetrated genocide against Jews, Romani people, disabled individuals, and other minority groups, resulting in the Holocaust. Castro's regime, while engaging in political repression and human rights abuses, did not commit genocide. Castro's regime implemented socialist economic policies, including nationalization of industries and collectivisation of agriculture, leading to a state-controlled economy. This allowed more totalitarian control in Cuba because the state (Communist party) controlled access to important jobs and services such as state-run shops, housing, education, and health care. Access to these goods was a reward for loyalty, especially for party members who worked for the state (nomenklatura). Hitler's economic policies combined elements of state control with private ownership, focusing on rearmament and public works projects to combat unemployment. This also generated support but because private businesses continued to exist, the state did not have as much direct control over people’s lives. In contrast to communist Cuba, access to goods and services continued to depend on an ability of citizens to pay.
Legal methods - formal social control
There are three dimensions to understanding legal methods. 1. New authoritarian laws. 2. New authoritarian institutions. 3. New authoritarian people. (see film) In a dictatorship there is no real separation of powers, no independent judiciary which can strike down legislation as unconstitutional. Laws might effectively be imposed by decree or martial law might be imposed. Opposing the government becomes a political crime. New institutions can be created (prerogative state), especially new law courts or government bodies. Elections might be used to provide legitimacy to government (both normative and prerogative), but the elections are neither free and nor fair. Positions of power and influence are given to people who are loyal to the party/regime in power. |
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Both Hitler and Castro used legal methods to consolidate their power. Hitler’s first 18 months of consolidating power ‘gleichschaltung’ provides us with the model with which all authoritarian states are compared. For example, the very concept of the 'dual state', the idea that a newly authoritarian state introduces new authoritarian institutions (prerogative state), such as new law courts for political prisoners, was originally devised by the German political scientist Ernst Fraenkel to help explain how Weimar democracy was replaced.
The key feature of Castro’s consolidation after 1959 was not the erosion of democratic institutions which did not exist in Cuba, but rather anti-imperialist wresting of power from American institutions within the broader context of the Cold War. An increasingly authoritarian communist state (socialist 1961 communist 1965) was created in response to the threat of the USA and support of the USSR. This was a state in which a growing party bureaucracy (nomenklatura) was increasingly in control over the day to day lives of ordinary people and which being a loyal member of the party gained you access to the things that increasingly money could not buy: housing, health, education etc. This meant that a significant section of the population had an interest in the maintenance of Castro’s regime. Whereas the consolidation on power in Nazi Germany took a matter of 18 months, in Cuba this was and remains an ongoing process (e.g. 1976 constitution).
The key feature of Castro’s consolidation after 1959 was not the erosion of democratic institutions which did not exist in Cuba, but rather anti-imperialist wresting of power from American institutions within the broader context of the Cold War. An increasingly authoritarian communist state (socialist 1961 communist 1965) was created in response to the threat of the USA and support of the USSR. This was a state in which a growing party bureaucracy (nomenklatura) was increasingly in control over the day to day lives of ordinary people and which being a loyal member of the party gained you access to the things that increasingly money could not buy: housing, health, education etc. This meant that a significant section of the population had an interest in the maintenance of Castro’s regime. Whereas the consolidation on power in Nazi Germany took a matter of 18 months, in Cuba this was and remains an ongoing process (e.g. 1976 constitution).
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Of all of the new laws, the Enabling Act of March 1933 was central to Hitler's ability to do much else that followed and was made possible by the political crisis that resulted from the burning down of Reichstag in February 1933. (see below) New institutions were created - May 2, 1933, Nazi controlled German Labour Front replaces trade unions or People’s Courts April 1934 which had jurisdiction over a wide range of “political offences” and a tendency to punish more severely. New authoritarian people were appointed - Führerprinzip a very simple concept: that the will of the Führer was above the law and all legal institutions and loyal party members were rewarded with positions of responsibility within the new state, e.g. Heinrich Himmler served as one of Hitler's most trusted deputies. He held several key positions within the Nazi regime, including Reichsführer-SS (Leader of the SS). Joseph Goebbels was the Nazi Party's chief propagandist and served as the Reich Minister of Propaganda from 1933 until his death in 1945. In addition, 'undesirable' political a social groups like socialists and jews were forced out of state professions. e.g. Act for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service April 1933. Elections were held periodically to maintain a semblance of legitimacy for the regime. However, these elections were heavily manipulated, lacked genuine political competition, and were used as tools of propaganda to reinforce Nazi control. Elections for local and regional offices, such as municipal councils and state parliaments (Landtags), were also held under Nazi rule. Elections to the Reichstag were held several times during the Nazi regime, including in 1933, 1936, and 1938. In 1934, a plebiscite was held to legitimize Hitler's assumption of the presidency after the death of President Paul von Hindenburg. In 1938, a referendum was held to approve Germany's annexation of Austria (Anschluss |
The political consolidation of Fidel Castro in the new Cuban government began in early 1959 with the appointment of communist officials to office and a wave of removals of other revolutionaries that criticized the appointment of communists. In July 1959 the relatively independent president Urrutia was replaced by a Castro appointee Osvaldo Dorticos This trend came to a head with the Huber Matos affair (see below. The government ruled by decree issue a ban on all political parties, but repeatedly stated that they would get around to organizing multiparty elections; this never occurred. As in Germany, Castro created a ‘dual state’ system by creating alternative (prerogative) institutions which bypassed the (normative) government. The most important example of this was the Institutio Nacional de Reforma Agraria (INRA)—an agency of the Cuban government responsible to implement the first (1959) and second (1963) Agrarian Reforms which was led by Castro himself and became the defacto government. The hostile reaction of the USA to the land reforms forced Castro into increasingly independent (socialist) policies, which in turn further alienated the Americans and led to an effective siege. In October 1960, and response to the refusal of US oil companies to refine imported Soviet oil, Castro nationalised 382 Cuban companies and gradually introduced a command economy. By the end of 1960 90% of Cuban exports were produced by state run companies. In February 1961, Che Guevara became minister of industries at the head of a state planning board (Juceplan) |
Coercion - formal social control
It is the absence of the rule of law that is the most significant characteristic of an authoritarian state.
The individual might be arrested and held for an indefinite period without access to a lawyer and without having enjoyed a fair trial. In prison, they might be denied basic rights, and subject to physical and psychological abuse and torture. In this way, vocal critics, those capable of influencing others, are silenced and potential opposition is stifled. In addition, new authoritarian laws might contravene liberal expectations that new laws cannot be imposed retroactively, or that laws cannot be motivated by political or ideological biases. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
On 27 February 1933 the Reichstag building was burned down. The communists were blamed for the fire. Hitler expelled the Communists from Parliament and imprisoned many Communist leaders. This stopped them campaigning prior to the March elections. Hindenburg declared a state of emergency using Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution. This resulted in newspapers being censored and personal letters and phone calls being checked. This is seen as the start of the end of democracy in Germany. The Schutzstaffel (SS) was originally a bodyguard organisation set up to counter the violence at party meetings and developed into the most important paramilitary organisation in Nazi Germany. Under the leadership of Himmler, the SS expanded. He considered the SS an elite, ideologically driven National Socialist organization. The Gestapo, short for Geheime Staatspolizei, was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. It was established in 1933, shortly after the Nazis came to power, and it played a key role in enforcing the policies of the Nazi government, suppressing political opposition, and carrying out acts of terror and repression. Concentration camps. After Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933, the Nazi regime moved quickly to suppress political opposition. The existing camps were expanded, and new ones were established. Dachau, for example, was initially used to imprison political opponents, communists, and socialists. The "Night of the Long Knives" was a violent purge that took place in Nazi Germany from June 30 to July 2, 1934. It involved the execution of key members of the SA (Sturmabteilung), including its leader Ernst Röhm, and other political rivals. |
As in Germany, the early days of the regime saw the arrest and imprisonment of opposition politicians. Members of the Batista regime were subjected to televised show trials. Guevara was charged by the new government with purging the Batista army and consolidating victory by exacting "revolutionary justice" against those regarded as traitors, chivatos (informants) or war criminals. Department of State Security (G2). This agency was responsible for monitoring, infiltrating, and suppressing dissent within Cuban society. It employed tactics such as surveillance, interrogation, and intimidation to quash opposition to the government. "Military Units to Aid Production" (UMAP), where individuals deemed to be "socially deviant" or counterrevolutionary were sent for re-education through labour. These camps subjected detainees to harsh conditions and forced labour under military supervision. Committees for the Defence of the Revolution (CDR) set up in September 1960, to monitor and report on the activities of citizens within their communities. These groups acted as a form of neighbourhood surveillance and were used to intimidate and suppress dissent. The regime engaged in mass exile of political dissidents and opponents, forcing them to leave the country or face persecution. Many Cubans fled the island in fear of reprisals from the government, leading to significant diaspora communities abroad. Between 1961-2, 150,000 Cubans left. |
Persuasion - (propaganda) - informal social control
Censorship means that the state suppresses information or opinion which is offensive or contrary to the views of those in authority. It might be considered a negative form of propaganda. Propaganda is a conscious attempt to influence the opinions of an audience (and indirectly their actions) in a way that is designed to serve the interests of those who create and spread the propaganda. Although propaganda is a cultural phenomenon - it concerned with thoughts, ideas and beliefs expressed through newspapers and radio, posters, and film - propaganda is also designed to impact on political and social life, albeit indirectly. All authoritarian states use propaganda that seeks to promote social solidarity and some degree of social depoliticisation, but only totalitarian regimes seek a social transformation through the propagandisation of culture and the arts in general. This is explained in the film below on the 'propaganda spectrum'. On education and the arts see social and cultural policies below
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As totalitarian states both Hitler’s Germany and Castro’s Cuba used significant informal social control. (See examples below) The main difference between them was simply in the ideological content of the propaganda.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Nazis enacted laws that criminalized criticism of the government and any dissenting voices. The most infamous of these was the Reich Press Law of 1933. The Nazis established the Reich Chamber of Culture, which controlled all aspects of art, literature, music, and media. In Germany propaganda was designed to mobilise the masses in enthusiastic support for the regime e.g. The Nuremberg Rallies. The reach of propaganda was perhaps different in German to its contemporary authoritarian states. Almost 100% of the German population was literate during the time period that the Nazis were in power. In Italy the rate was closer to 50% while Mussolini was in power, and in the Soviet Union it was about 45% under Stalin. Nazi propaganda emphasized nationalism, Aryan supremacy, and the idea of a greater German empire. They used symbols like the swastika and slogans like "Deutschland über alles" (Germany above all) to promote this vision. The Nazis used sport, especially the 1936 Berlin Olympics to further the interests of the regime. The Hitler Youth was open to all German youth between the ages of 10 and 18, although membership became compulsory in 1936. The Hitler Youth organized a wide range of activities aimed at promoting Nazi ideology, militarism, and loyalty to the regime. In addition to the Hitler Youth for boys, the Nazi regime also established the League of German Girls (Bund Deutscher Mädel, BDM) |
Department of Revolutionary Orientation (DOR): This department was established in the early years of the Cuban revolution and was responsible for coordinating propaganda activities, including censorship, media control, and dissemination of government-approved information. The regime utilized catchy slogans and powerful symbols to rally support for the revolution and create a sense of unity among the population. Phrases such as "¡Viva la Revolución!" (Long live the revolution!) and "¡Patria o Muerte, Venceremos!" (Homeland or death, we shall overcome!) were widely disseminated through posters, banners, and speeches. Mass Mobilization Campaigns: Literacy Campaign of 1961, which aimed to eradicate illiteracy in Cuba within a year. These campaigns not only served practical purposes but also reinforced the narrative of a united and determined people working towards the goals of the revolution. The Cuban government heavily invested in sports, particularly in disciplines where Cuban athletes could excel (especially in Olympics), such as boxing, baseball, and athletics. 1968 Olympics in Mexico City were particularly significant for Cuba as the boxing team dominated the competition, winning four gold medals. The José Martí Pioneer Organization was founded in 1961 as a mass organization for children between the ages of 6 and 14 and separated into boys and girls’ sections. It was inspired by the Soviet model of the Young Pioneer organization and aimed to instil socialist values and revolutionary consciousness in young children. |
Charismatic leaders - informal social control.
Personality cults were certainly not new in the 20th century, but the development of the mass media of popular newspapers, radio, and newsreel, at the same time as the arrival of modern authoritarian states, created new opportunities for a cult of authoritarian leaders to be widely disseminated for propaganda purposes.
As the film opposite explains, personalitycults help to make the political process intelligible for the masses. The leader can be placed above the political fray, the representative of the common man against the elites, and leader becomes a familial source of loyalty and genuine affection; a big brother or father figure who over time becomes a source of consistency and comfort. |
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Both leaders were skilled orators who captivated audiences with their speeches and rhetoric. They used mass rallies and public events to convey their messages, inspiring devotion, and loyalty among their followers. But along with the ideological differences, the long-lasting nature and universal anti-imperial appeal of Castro/Che gave the Cuba model an international significance. The leadership cult in Nazi Germany was rooted in fascist ideology, which emphasized the supremacy of the leader and the subordination of the individual to the state. Hitler was portrayed as the infallible leader of the Aryan race, whose will was synonymous with the will of the nation. In contrast, the leadership cult in Castro's Cuba was rooted in socialist ideology, which emphasized collective leadership and the importance of the revolution. While Castro was revered as the leader of the revolution, he was also depicted as a humble servant of the people and a symbol of resistance against imperialism.
Hitler |
Castro |
Hitler possessed exceptional oratory skills and charisma, which he used to captivate audiences and inspire fervent loyalty among his followers. His powerful speeches and dynamic presence helped to cultivate a cult of personality around him, portraying him as a charismatic and visionary leader The Führerprinzip was a central tenet of Nazi ideology, which emphasized the absolute authority of the leader (Führer). Hitler was portrayed as the embodiment of the will of the German people and the nation, with unquestionable authority over all aspects of German life. His word was considered law, and obedience to his commands was seen as the highest virtue. The Nazi regime used propaganda extensively to promote Hitler's image and cultivate the cult of personality surrounding him. Portraits, posters, and statues of Hitler were displayed prominently in public spaces, while propaganda films, rallies, and events glorified his leadership and achievements. Symbols such as the swastika and the Nazi salute were used to reinforce the cult of Hitler and foster a sense of unity and loyalty among the German people. Hitler was often portrayed in messianic terms, as a saviour figure who would lead Germany to glory and redemption. He was depicted as the "saviour of the nation" who would deliver the German people from their perceived enemies and restore their greatness. This messianic image contributed to the cult-like devotion and adulation surrounding him. |
Leadership cults - Fidel Castro and Che Guevara were portrayed as heroic figures who selflessly fought for the liberation of the Cuban people from oppression and imperialism. Their images were ubiquitous in public spaces. Like Hitler, Castro was a charismatic leader who cultivated a strong personal following and inspired intense loyalty and devotion among his supporters. He was viewed as a revolutionary hero and a symbol of resistance against imperialism and oppression. His personal sacrifices and dedication to the revolutionary cause were celebrated as exemplary virtues but he was not portrayed as a messiah. Unlike Hitler's cult, which was rooted in fascist ideology and the glorification of the nation-state, Castro's cult was grounded in socialist ideology and the principles of Marxism-Leninism. Castro was depicted as a champion of socialism, anti-imperialism, and international solidarity, inspiring support not only within Cuba but also among leftist movements around the world. His support for revolutionary movements in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean elevated his status as a global icon of socialist revolution. |
Treatment of opposition - coercion and scapegoating.
(See coercion above) The main differences between the regimes were again the ideological nature of the oppression but also the scale. Castro's regime in Cuba was guided by Marxist-Leninist ideology, which framed political opposition as counter-revolutionary and subversive to the socialist project. Opposition groups were often labeled as "enemies of the revolution" and targeted for suppression. In contrast, Hitler's regime in Nazi Germany was driven by Nazi ideology where opposition was often framed in terms of ideological enemies, such as communists, but also other “subhuman groups”, notably the Jews. This dehumanisation led to a scale and intensity of repression that were greater under Hitler's regime.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
The Nazi Party: "Night of the Long Knives" was a violent purge that took place in Nazi Germany from June 30 to July 2, 1934. It involved the execution of key members of the SA (Sturmabteilung), including its leader Ernst Röhm, and other political rivals. Political opponents. Left wing political organisations were targeted early in the consolidation. The Communists (KPD) were banned at the time of Reichstag Fire, Trade Unions in May 1933 and all other political parties in July 1933. In contrast to Cuba, the Church was co-opted into the regime through The Nazi regime sought to establish agreements, known as concordats, with the Catholic Church and some Protestant denominations to regulate their relationship with the state, e.g. The Reichskonkordat, signed between Nazi Germany and the Vatican in 1933. Those who did organise resistance later in the regime were severly punished. On February 18, 1943, The White Rose movement of Hans and Sophie Scholl and Christoph Probst guillotined February 22, 1943, and July 20, 1944, plot led by Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg who was executed. |
Cuban Exiles: These groups included political organizations, paramilitary groups, and advocacy groups opposed to the Castro regime. Examples include the Cuban American National Foundation (CANF 1981) Catholic Church e.g. Christian Liberation Movement led by Oswaldo Payá. The Cuban Revolution was largely secular and socialist, and Castro's government implemented policies that limited the influence of the Church in public life. This included restrictions on religious education and the nationalization of religious schools and properties. Huber Matos: A former comandante in the Cuban Revolution, Matos became disillusioned with Castro's turn towards communism and resigned from his position in protest in 1959. He was subsequently arrested and sentenced to 20 years in prison for his opposition to the regime. Second National Front of Escambray - Eloy Gutiérrez Menoyo: Another former comandante in the Cuban Revolution, formed an anti-Castro guerrilla group called the Second National Front of Escambray, which operated in the Escambray Mountains in central Cuba during the 1960s. |
Foreign policy - helped to generate consent (support)
Both regimes pursued expansionist foreign policies aimed at extending their influence and control over other territories. Hitler's Nazi Germany sought to establish a Greater German Reich through conquest and annexation of neighbouring countries, leading to the outbreak of World War II. Similarly, Castro's Cuba supported revolutionary movements and leftist governments in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean, aiming to spread socialist ideology and anti-imperialist struggle.
Hitler's Nazi Germany portrayed itself as a victim of the Versailles Treaty and sought to reclaim territories lost after World War I. Similarly, Castro's Cuba criticized U.S. imperialism and advocated for national sovereignty, self-determination, and anti-colonial struggles in the developing world. Both regimes formed alliances with other authoritarian and totalitarian regimes that shared similar ideological or strategic interests. Hitler's Nazi Germany formed alliances with fascist Italy and imperial Japan, as well as non-aggression pacts with the Soviet Union. Castro's Cuba aligned itself with the Soviet Union and other socialist countries, receiving economic, military, and ideological support from the socialist bloc during the Cold War. Both sets of foreign policies were popular at home and helped generate support (consent) for the regime.
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The key differences again were ideological. Nazi Germany's foreign policy was driven by fascism, which emphasized racial supremacy, expansionism, and militarism. Hitler sought to establish a racially homogeneous Greater German Reich and pursue Lebensraum (living space) for the German people. In contrast, Castro's Cuba's foreign policy was guided by Marxist-Leninist principles, which emphasized class struggle, international solidarity, and anti-capitalism. Cuba supported revolutionary movements and socialist governments in the global South, advocating for social justice and anti-imperialism. Nazi Germany pursued expansion through military aggression and conquest, employing blitzkrieg tactics and launching invasions of neighbouring countries. Hitler's regime annexed territories such as Austria, Czechoslovakia, and Poland, leading to the outbreak of World War II. In contrast, Cuba's expansionist efforts were primarily focused on supporting revolutionary movements and leftist governments through diplomatic, economic, military assistance but also through cultural influence (soft power). Cuba provided aid to liberation movements in countries such as Angola, Mozambique, and Nicaragua, but did not engage in direct military conquest.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Adolf Hitler's foreign policy was characterized by expansionism, aggression, and the pursuit of Lebensraum (living space) for the German people. Hitler's goals included the establishment of a Greater German Reich, the dismantling of the Treaty of Versailles, and the domination of Europe under Nazi rule. Remilitarization of the Rhineland (1936): In violation of the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties, which demilitarized the Rhineland region, Anschluss with Austria (1938): Hitler sought to unify Austria (Anschluss) with Nazi Germany, viewing Austria as part of a Greater German Reich. In September 1938, Hitler, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, French Premier Édouard Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini signed the Munich Agreement, allowing Germany to annex the Sudetenland, a German-speaking region of Czechoslovakia. In August 1939, Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Soviet Union signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression treaty that included secret protocols dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence. The pact allowed Hitler to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention, leading to the outbreak of World War II. September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, triggering the start of World War II and ultimately the defeat of Nazi Germany. |
Alignment with the Soviet Union: Following the Cuban Revolution in 1959, Fidel Castro pursued a policy of close alignment with the Soviet Union. This alliance provided Cuba with economic, military, and political support, including financial aid, trade agreements, and military assistance. The presence of Soviet advisors and technicians in Cuba further strengthened ties between the two countries. Anti-imperialist rhetoric and support for revolutionary movements was instrumental in the spread of Marxist-Leninist ideology and revolutionary movements in Latin America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Cuba participated in international forums such as the Non-Aligned Movement. Cuban military interventions in Africa, such as in Angola and Ethiopia. Cuba skilfully navigated several international crises, including the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961 and the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, to bolster its standing as a defender of national sovereignty and independence. Cultural diplomacy as soft power: The Castro regime promoted Cuban culture and identity abroad through cultural exchange programs, international festivals, and artistic collaborations. Cuban music, dance, literature, and film became influential worldwide, projecting an image of Cuba as a vibrant and culturally rich nation. Cuban music, including genres like son, salsa, mambo, and Afro-Cuban jazz, has had a profound influence worldwide e.g. The Buena Vista Social Club project, Havana International Jazz Festival. |
Consent - popular policies that win public support.
This section is not in the syllabus for ‘consolidation and maintenance’ (it is a summary of aims and results of policies) but has been added to recognise that authoritarian regimes also maintain power because they do things that are popular with the public and that consequently the public support the regime (consent of the governed). It is fair to say that both regimes were genuinely popular and enjoyed a significant public support.
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
The National Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst) provided work opportunities for unemployed Germans through public works projects and agricultural labour schemes. The regime also restricted the rights of workers to strike and bargain collectively, instead promoting a corporatist model of labour relations under the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront). Public works and infrastructure projects were a significant component of Nazi Germany's economic policies, aimed at stimulating economic growth, reducing unemployment, and showcasing the regime's achievements. One of the most ambitious public works projects of the Nazi era was the construction of the Reichsautobahn, or the German highway system. The Nazi regime invested heavily in the construction of public buildings, monuments, and architectural projects intended to showcase Nazi ideology and glorify the regime. Examples include the Reich Chancellery in Berlin, the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg, and the Olympic Stadium built for the 1936 Berlin Olympics. The Kraft durch Freude (KdF), which translates to "Strength Through Joy," was a large state-operated leisure organization in Nazi Germany. Established in 1933 under the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront, DAF), the KdF aimed to provide recreational activities and affordable vacations for German workers, thereby promoting loyalty to the regime and fostering a sense of a "people's community" (Volksgemeinschaft) in which all Germans could enjoy the benefits of Hitler's rule. Hitler's emphasis on German nationalism, pride, and militarism resonated with many Germans who felt humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles and the perceived injustices of the post-World War I era. Hitler promised to restore Germany's status as a great power and rebuild the military, appealing to patriotic sentiments. Hitler's aggressive foreign policy, aimed at expanding German territory and influence, resonated with many Germans who supported the idea of Lebensraum (living space) for the German people. The annexation of Austria (Anschluss) and the acquisition of the Sudetenland were popular among Germans who saw them as steps toward restoring Germany's Pre-World War I borders. |
Cuban independence nationalism and anti-Americanism were central themes in Cuba during the 1960s, challenging U.S. hegemony, and promoting solidarity with oppressed peoples worldwide. Land Reform, redistributing land from large landowners, including foreign corporations and wealthy Cubans, to small farmers and agricultural cooperatives to increase agricultural productivity, and improve rural living standards, e.g. Agrarian Reform Law of 1959 Nationalization of Industries including sugar, mining, and utilities. The government expropriated foreign-owned companies and large landholdings, placing them under state control to redistribute wealth and resources more equitably among the Cuban population, e.g. Sugar Industry Ministry (MINAZ) was established in 1961 to oversee the management and operation of the nationalized sugar sector. Universal literacy campaigns were launched, mobilizing thousands of volunteers to teach reading and writing skills to previously marginalized populations. The government also established free public education from primary school to university, aiming to create a more educated and skilled workforce. Year of Education 1961 reduced the national illiteracy rate from around 25% to less than 4% within one year. Healthcare Reform provided universal access to healthcare services for all citizens. The government established a national healthcare system based on preventive care, primary healthcare clinics, and community-based medicine. Healthcare professionals were mobilized to provide medical care in rural and underserved areas, resulting in significant improvements in public health indicators and life expectancy, e.g. 1960 - Creation of the Cuban Ministry of Public Health: Housing Programs for affordable housing units, particularly in urban areas, and to provide housing for low-income families. The government also implemented rent controls and housing subsidies to make housing more accessible to ordinary Cubans e.g. 1960 Urban Reform Law (Ley de Reforma Urbana). |
Section 3 - The Aims and Results of Policies – Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba
(Download printable version)
(Download printable version)
Summary
As we have seen above, Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba, though separated by time, space, and ideology, shared similarities in their pursuit of authoritarian rule. However, their policies and impacts diverged significantly across economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions, including their effects on women and minorities.
Similarities: Politically, both regimes sought total control. Hitler's Germany established a brutal dictatorship, suppressing dissent and centralizing power under the Nazi Party. Castro's Cuba centralized control under the Communist Party, also limiting freedoms and suppressing opposition. Hitler’s regime worked within the existing capitalist system and with the support of big business and this set restrictions on the extent to which authoritarian control could be achieved. Cuba’s gradual embrace of communism gave the Party much more direct control over lives of its citizens and as a result transformed (and controlled) their lives more completely. The fact that the Communist Cuban regime lasted much longer also resulted in greater control.
Differences: Ideology matters. Socially, Hitler promoted racial purity through persecution and genocide, while Castro pursued social equality, though also implementing repression and censorship. In Hitler's Germany, economic policies were driven by militarisation and conquest, aiming to revive the economy and achieve fascist self-sufficiency (autarky). While initially successful in reducing unemployment and stimulating growth, this ultimately led to devastation and war. Castro's Cuba, on the other hand, pursued socialism, redistributing wealth, and prioritizing social welfare over profit. Though achieving successes in healthcare and education, it struggled with inefficiency and dependency largely because of the consequences of the Cold War. Culturally, Hitler imposed Nazi ideology, banning dissenting art and promoting a narrow vision of German identity. Castro promoted Cuban nationalism and socialist values through education and media, though also restricting expression. Women and minorities bore significant impacts. In Hitler's Germany, women faced restrictions and minorities suffered persecution. Castro's Cuba made strides in gender equality and racial justice, yet disparities persisted.
As we have seen above, Hitler's Germany and Castro's Cuba, though separated by time, space, and ideology, shared similarities in their pursuit of authoritarian rule. However, their policies and impacts diverged significantly across economic, political, social, and cultural dimensions, including their effects on women and minorities.
Similarities: Politically, both regimes sought total control. Hitler's Germany established a brutal dictatorship, suppressing dissent and centralizing power under the Nazi Party. Castro's Cuba centralized control under the Communist Party, also limiting freedoms and suppressing opposition. Hitler’s regime worked within the existing capitalist system and with the support of big business and this set restrictions on the extent to which authoritarian control could be achieved. Cuba’s gradual embrace of communism gave the Party much more direct control over lives of its citizens and as a result transformed (and controlled) their lives more completely. The fact that the Communist Cuban regime lasted much longer also resulted in greater control.
Differences: Ideology matters. Socially, Hitler promoted racial purity through persecution and genocide, while Castro pursued social equality, though also implementing repression and censorship. In Hitler's Germany, economic policies were driven by militarisation and conquest, aiming to revive the economy and achieve fascist self-sufficiency (autarky). While initially successful in reducing unemployment and stimulating growth, this ultimately led to devastation and war. Castro's Cuba, on the other hand, pursued socialism, redistributing wealth, and prioritizing social welfare over profit. Though achieving successes in healthcare and education, it struggled with inefficiency and dependency largely because of the consequences of the Cold War. Culturally, Hitler imposed Nazi ideology, banning dissenting art and promoting a narrow vision of German identity. Castro promoted Cuban nationalism and socialist values through education and media, though also restricting expression. Women and minorities bore significant impacts. In Hitler's Germany, women faced restrictions and minorities suffered persecution. Castro's Cuba made strides in gender equality and racial justice, yet disparities persisted.
Economic policies.
Perhaps the biggest area of difference. The Nazi state sought to reform capitalism, largely in the interests of capital (e.g. attacking trade unions) and to meet the demands of expansionist foreign policy. The Cuban state gradually sought to reform and later to abolish capitalism in order to meet the demands of socialist and later communist ideology. The main similarity between the two regimes was their attempt to reduce economic dependency on foreign powers and international trade. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Adolf Hitler's economic policies in Nazi Germany aimed to address the economic turmoil and social upheaval that plagued the country after World War I and during the Great Depression. Aims: Hitler sought to revive the German economy, which was devastated by the effects of World War I, reparations payments, hyperinflation, and the Great Depression. Hitler's economic vision included achieving autarky, or economic self-sufficiency, to reduce Germany's dependence on imports and foreign resources. This was pursued through policies such as the Four-Year Plan, which aimed to increase domestic production of raw materials and decrease reliance on foreign imports. Hitler prioritized the militarization of the German economy to prepare for territorial expansion and war in violation of the Treaty of Versailles, which had imposed strict limits on German military capabilities. Hitler's economic policies included public works programs, such as the construction of infrastructure, roads, and buildings such as The National Labour Service (Reichsarbeitsdienst). The regime also aimed to win the support of big business by restricting the rights of workers to strike and bargain collectively, instead promoting a corporatist model of labour relations under the German Labour Front (Deutsche Arbeitsfront). Impact: Hitler's economic policies initially led to a significant reduction in unemployment and stimulated economic growth. Public works projects, rearmament efforts, and increased government spending contributed to improved economic conditions in the early years of Nazi rule. While the Four-Year Plan made some progress towards achieving economic self-sufficiency, it ultimately fell short of its goals. Germany remained dependent on imports for key resources, and the pursuit of autarky led to inefficiencies and resource shortages in certain sectors of the economy. Hitler's emphasis on militarization and rearmament strained Germany's economy and resources. The massive investment in the military diverted resources away from civilian sectors, contributing to shortages and inefficiencies in the production of consumer goods. Hitler's economic policies relied heavily on the exploitation of forced labour, including concentration camp inmates and occupied populations, to support the war effort and meet production quotas. This led to widespread human rights abuses and suffering among those subjected to forced labour. |
Fidel Castro's economic policies in Cuba aimed to transform the country into an independent (later socialist) state, prioritizing social welfare, and reducing dependence on capitalist influences (esp. USA) Aims: Castro aimed to establish a socialist economy in Cuba, inspired by Marxist-Leninist principles, which emphasized collective ownership of the means of production, central planning (command economy), and equitable distribution of wealth. This involved nationalizing industries e.g. Sugar Industry Ministry (MINAZ) was established in 1961, expropriating land from large landowners, and redistributing resources to benefit the Cuban people. This policy sought to address the unequal distribution of land in Cuba and empower rural communities by granting them access to land and resources. e.g. Agrarian Reform Law of 1959. Castro aimed to reduce Cuba's dependence on foreign powers, particularly the United States, and achieve economic independence and self-sufficiency. This involved diversifying the economy, promoting domestic industries, and forging alliances with socialist countries, such as the Soviet Union, for economic support and assistance. Impact: Castro's economic policies led to significant improvements in social welfare indicators in Cuba, including healthcare, education, and literacy rates. Access to healthcare and education became universal, and Cuba achieved high levels of literacy and educational attainment compared to other countries in the region. Castro's policies involved centralizing control over the economy and implementing state planning and management of key industries and resources. While this allowed the government to prioritize social welfare and national development, it also led to inefficiencies, bureaucracy, and lack of innovation in the economy. Castro's pursuit of economic independence and self-sufficiency was hampered by Cuba's reliance on economic aid and support from the Soviet Union. Cuba became heavily dependent on Soviet subsidies, trade agreements, and financial assistance, which left the country vulnerable to changes in Soviet policy and economic fluctuations. |
Political policies.
This section is best considered largely through detailed themes developed earlier as ‘consolidation and maintenance of power’. Of particular use is the legal (prerogative state) and coercive means of maintaining power and the ideologically inspired creation of a state bureaucracy in Cuba which distinguished the communist political system in Cuba. Here we simply separate aims from impact.
This section is best considered largely through detailed themes developed earlier as ‘consolidation and maintenance of power’. Of particular use is the legal (prerogative state) and coercive means of maintaining power and the ideologically inspired creation of a state bureaucracy in Cuba which distinguished the communist political system in Cuba. Here we simply separate aims from impact.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Adolf Hitler's political policies in Nazi Germany aimed to establish and consolidate a totalitarian dictatorship under the Nazi Party, eliminate political opposition, and enforce Nazi ideology across all aspects of German society. Aims: Hitler sought to eliminate all political opposition to the Nazi Party and consolidate power in the hands of the state. There was a legal dimension to this that involved banning rival political parties, such as the Communists and Social Democrats, and a coercive dimension of imprisoning or executing political opponents, including members of the opposition, intellectuals, and dissidents. Hitler aimed to coordinate all aspects of society - Gleichschaltung - including government institutions, the economy, the media, education, and culture, under Nazi control. This involved legally restructuring (prerogative state) and purging existing institutions, such as the civil service, judiciary, and military, to ensure loyalty to the Nazi regime. May 2, 1933, Nazi controlled German Labour Front replaces trade unions or People’s Courts April 1934. Hitler utilized propaganda and censorship to shape public opinion, promote Nazi ideology, and control the flow of information. Elections were held periodically to maintain a semblance of legitimacy for the regime. However, these elections were heavily manipulated, lacked genuine political competition, and were used as tools of propaganda to reinforce Nazi control e.g. 1934, plebiscite. Impact: Hitler's political policies resulted in the suppression of political dissent and the elimination of opposition voices. Political opponents were arrested, imprisoned, or killed, and civil liberties, such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly, were abolished. The Gestapo (secret police) and SS (paramilitary force) were used to enforce obedience and root out dissent. Hitler's political policies led to the establishment of a brutal dictatorship, where power was concentrated in the hands of Hitler and the Nazi Party. The Enabling Act of 1933 gave Hitler dictatorial powers to govern by decree, bypassing the Reichstag (German parliament), and effectively ending democracy in Germany. Propaganda efforts glorified Hitler as a charismatic and visionary leader, while suppressing dissent and criticism of his policies. |
Fidel Castro's political policies in Cuba eventually aimed to establish a socialist state based on Marxist-Leninist principles, consolidate power under the Communist Party of Cuba, and promote revolutionary ideals both domestically and internationally. Aims: Castro aimed to establish a one-party state dominated by the Communist Party of Cuba, which would serve as the vanguard of the revolution and guide the country's political, economic, and social development. Castro sought to centralize power in the hands of the state and the Communist Party, concentrating decision-making authority and control over all aspects of Cuban society, including government institutions, the military, and the media. Castro aimed to promote socialist ideology, including concepts of social justice, equality, and solidarity, through education, propaganda, and mass mobilization. The Cuban government emphasized the principles of Marxism-Leninism and the need for revolutionary struggle against imperialism and capitalism. Castro's political policies emphasized anti-imperialism and national sovereignty, challenging U.S. hegemony in Latin America and advocating for the rights of small nations to determine their own destiny free from external interference. Impact: Castro's political policies led to the establishment of a one-party state in Cuba, with the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) as the sole legal political organization. Department of State Security (G2) was responsible for monitoring, infiltrating, and suppressing dissent and "Military Units to Aid Production" (UMAP) re-education through labour. All other political parties and opposition groups were banned, and political dissent was suppressed. Castro's policies centralized authority in the hands of the state and the Communist Party, creating a highly centralized and authoritarian system of governance. Because of the communist nature of the state the Cuban government controlled all aspects of public life, including the economy, the media, education, and the judiciary to a greater extent than in Nazi Germany. |
Cultural Policies
One of the key features of a totalitarian state that distinguishes it from a mere authoritarian regime is the need for public mobilisation in support of its ideas. It is not enough to censor culture that might have a negative impact; culture must positively engage the masses, emotionally moving them and promoting an aesthetic that fulfils the ideological goals of the movement.
To that end the distinctions between art and propaganda and the public and private domains begin to break down. As Stalin famously said artists must “engineers of human souls”.
The aims and impact of cultural policies in Nazi Germany and Cuba under Castro reflect the distinct ideological agendas and historical contexts of each regime. While Nazi cultural policies aimed to promote racial purity, conformity, and totalitarian control, Castro's cultural policies aimed to promote revolutionary values, cultural empowerment, and international solidarity, albeit with limitations on freedom of expression and artistic autonomy. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Aims: As a totalitarian regime the Nazis sought to mobilise culture in support of the objectives of the regime. Nazi cultural policy was an extension of The Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda had seven departments to oversee propaganda and censorship. (Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda, RMVP) Hitler aimed to promote a narrow conception of "Aryan" culture, which glorified Germanic traditions, history, and achievements. Nazi cultural policies sought to celebrate and elevate German culture as superior to all others, while denigrating and censoring art, literature, and music deemed "degenerate" or incompatible with Nazi ideology. Central to the Nazi Weltanschauung was a belief that cosmopolitan, ‘Jewish’, Weimar culture had been a corrupting influence of the German national psyche. The Nazis also aimed to direct leisure time and influence what had previously been considered people’s private life. Strength Through Joy (KdF) was an organisation that was used to control the arts and leisure. Impact: Being able to divert almost limitless funds to artistic and cultural projects enables authoritarian states to produce artefacts that would not be possible where there are normal commercial limits. Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl’s Triumph of the Will was a massive logistical exercise, well beyond the possibilities of any commercial studio at that time. Both the form and content of her work exemplified the celebration of authoritarianism. Nazi cultural policies led to the suppression of dissenting voices, artistic expression, and intellectual freedom. Many artists, writers, and intellectuals fled Germany to escape persecution, while others self-censored or collaborated with the regime to avoid punishment. The list of intellectuals, especially Jews, who left Nazi Germany is very long and includes the physicist Albert Einstein, the author Thomas Mann and the philosopher Theodor W. Adorno. Censorship was therefore a central strategy of Nazi artistic policy. Books were banned, art was removed from galleries e.g. Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) Exhibition in Munich in 1937. Nazi cultural policies promoted a homogenized, conformist culture that reinforced Nazi values and ideals. Hitler had been an artist and his architectural plans for the rebuilding of Germany obsessed him. His taste in visual arts and architecture was conservative and classical; the Nazi patronage of the sculptor Arno Breker typified this. KDF helped generate support for the regime through subsidised holidays (including the world’s first package holidays at purpose-built resorts (e.g. Prora), operatic and orchestral performances and free physical education and gymnastics training. According to the official statistics in 1934, 2.3 million people took KdF holidays and by 1938, this figure had risen to 10.3 million. |
Aims: Fidel Castro's government aimed to promote revolutionary values, Cuban nationalism, and socialist ideals through cultural policies. The regime sought to foster a sense of national pride and unity, celebrate the achievements of the revolution, and counteract the influence of capitalist and imperialist ideologies. Castro's government emphasized the importance of education as a tool for social transformation. The regime invested in public education, literacy campaigns, and cultural institutions to promote revolutionary values and combat illiteracy and ignorance. Castro's government used cultural diplomacy as a means of promoting Cuba's revolutionary ideals and building alliances with other socialist countries. Cuba provided support and solidarity to revolutionary movements around the world, using cultural exchanges, international festivals, and propaganda to promote solidarity and internationalism. Impact: Castro's cultural policies empowered marginalized groups, including Afro-Cubans and women, by promoting cultural diversity, racial equality, and gender equity. (see below) The regime implemented affirmative action policies to address historical inequalities and promote the participation of minorities and women in cultural and artistic endeavours. The legacy of Castro's cultural policies is one of cultural empowerment, social transformation, and international solidarity. The Cuban government's emphasis on education, literacy, and cultural enrichment led to significant improvements in literacy rates, educational attainment, and access to cultural resources for the Cuban people. (see social changes) The Cuban government nationalized cultural institutions, including theatres, publishing houses, and art galleries, to ensure that cultural production served the interests of the revolution. The Instituto Cubano del Arte e Industria Cinematográficos (ICAIC, Cuban Institute of Cinematographic Art and Industry) was established by the Cuban government in March 1959 after the Cuban Revolution. International cultural festivals include Havana International Ballet Festival since 1960, this biennial festival showcases the talents of Cuban ballet dancers alongside international stars. Havana International Jazz Festival since 1978. Cuban salsa music transcended national boundaries and became a global phenomenon during the 1960s and 1970s, reaching audiences around the world. Cuban musicians and bands like Celia Cruz, Tito Puente, and the Fania All-Stars played a crucial role in popularising salsa music internationally, spreading Afro-Cuban rhythms and culture to diverse audiences. |
Social Policies
Social policies, especially those dealing with women and minorities, provide us with some of the most distinctive contrasts between Nazi Germany and Castro’s Cuba. If asked to compare and contrast, you might struggle to find much to compare.
Social policies, especially those dealing with women and minorities, provide us with some of the most distinctive contrasts between Nazi Germany and Castro’s Cuba. If asked to compare and contrast, you might struggle to find much to compare.
Social policies are deliberate attempts by a government to manage or solve perceived societal problems. Many social policies are influenced by economics and attempt to resolve social problems that have an economic root. For example, social welfare policies attempt to deal with unemployment, poor housing, or lack of access to health care.
The social policies implemented in Castro's Cuba and Hitler's Germany reflected the distinct ideological agendas and historical contexts of each regime. While Castro's social policies aimed to promote social equality, access to healthcare and education, and empowerment of marginalized groups, Hitler's social policies were characterized by racial ideology, persecution, and genocide. |
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Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Aims: Nazi youth policies aimed to indoctrinate young people with Nazi ideology, instil loyalty to Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, and prepare them to become loyal supporters of the regime. The Hitler Youth (Hitlerjugend) and the League of German Girls (BDM) were the primary organizations tasked with achieving these goals. The Nazi regime aimed to control and co-opt the Christian churches in Germany to serve its own interests. Potentially, as a rival source of people’s loyalty, the church could be a dangerous enemy. While the Nazi leadership was largely secular and hostile to organized religion, they recognized the influence of the churches and sought to manipulate them for political purposes. Impact: Nazi youth policies were highly effective in indoctrinating young Germans with Nazi ideology and propaganda. Through youth organizations, rallies, camps, and educational programs, the Nazis were able to instil a strong sense of loyalty and devotion to Hitler and the Nazi Party among young people. Nazi youth organizations played a crucial role in preparing young Germans for military service and promoting militarism and aggression as virtues. The effectiveness of this can be seen in the role of Hitler Youth in the defence of Berlin in 1945. Hitler’s socially conservative Weltanschauung and pervasive antisemitism also had wide appeal in Christian circles. From the Nazi perspective, the church had to be handled carefully. Potentially, as a rival source of people’s loyalty, the church could be a dangerous enemy. Hitler signed a Concordat (agreement) with the Catholic Church in July 1933. The Nazis attempted a similar policy of co-optation with the Protestant Church. A Reich bishop was appointed and ‘German Christians’ were appointed to key positions in the church. There were those in the Nazi Party ‘Blut und Boden' (Blood and Soil) section with leading figures such as Heinrich Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg who supported the rival pagan ‘German Faith Movement’, which had some influence. The pagans gained official recognition, their fervent promotion of the Hitler cult was welcome and even some Christian traditions – carol singing, and nativity plays – were banned. But it was always a small sect and Hitler never fully supported it. |
Aims: Castro's social policies aimed to reduce social inequalities and promote equality among the Cuban population. This included initiatives to address poverty, improve access to healthcare and education, and provide basic necessities to all citizens. While the Cuban government did not engage in widespread persecution of religious institutions, (the Catholic Church had been significantly less influential than in other South American states) it sought to control and regulate the activities of religious organizations, particularly those perceived as a threat to the revolutionary government. Impact: Castro's social policies led to significant improvements in social indicators, including healthcare outcomes, education attainment, and poverty reduction. Cuba achieved high levels of literacy, life expectancy, and low infant mortality rates compared to other countries in the region, despite limited resources and economic challenges. For example, in the 1960 Year of Education, over 300,000 children attended school for the first time. Castro's policies toward the church led to a reduction of its influence in Cuban society, particularly in the realm of education and public life. Religious institutions were subject to government oversight, and religious education was largely replaced with secular education in schools. The 1990s saw a change when 1992 Cuba officially was officially declared secular rather than atheist and the Pope visited. |
Impact of policies on women
Left-wing political theory has long had a feminist dimension that explains women’s subordination as an inevitable characteristic of capitalism. The domestic ‘reproductive labour’ of women as mothers and housekeepers is seen as an essential, but unrecognised and unpaid means of keeping production costs down. As such the question of female emancipation was very much tied up to the proposed radical reorganisation of the economy. Right-wing authoritarianism, in contrast, set out to resist the progress that women had made in the early 20th century. They harked back to the dominant 19th century view that society was naturally composed of ‘separate spheres’, a domestic or private sphere for women and a public or social sphere for men.
Left-wing political theory has long had a feminist dimension that explains women’s subordination as an inevitable characteristic of capitalism. The domestic ‘reproductive labour’ of women as mothers and housekeepers is seen as an essential, but unrecognised and unpaid means of keeping production costs down. As such the question of female emancipation was very much tied up to the proposed radical reorganisation of the economy. Right-wing authoritarianism, in contrast, set out to resist the progress that women had made in the early 20th century. They harked back to the dominant 19th century view that society was naturally composed of ‘separate spheres’, a domestic or private sphere for women and a public or social sphere for men.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Aims: Control of Women's Roles: Hitler's regime sought to control and regulate women's roles within society, promoting traditional gender norms and encouraging women to prioritize their roles as wives and mothers. Women were encouraged to stay at home and raise children, while opportunities for education and employment were limited. Results: A woman's role in society was to be focused on the three Ks: Kinder, Küche, Kirche (Children, Kitchen, Church). In 1933, 15 percent of female teachers lost their jobs, and 19 000 female civil servants were sacked. Quotas were set so that only 10 percent of university places were given to women. There was a resulting decline in female employment from 37 per cent to 31 per cent between 1933 and 1937. Family planning clinics were closed, contraception was almost impossible to find, and abortion was made illegal in 1933. The Nazi attempt to shape a national Weltanschauung in its own image through the control of arts, media, and education. The physical ideal was the ‘Aryan’ archetype: blonde, beautiful, tall, slim, and strong. Images showed ‘racially pure’ women, healthy for childbearing, usually in a domestic setting, surrounded by children. The ‘Law for the Reduction of Unemployment’ of June 1933 encouraged women to leave work on marriage, with the support of loans that provided just over half an average year's earnings. Further incentives for women to have large families included the Cross of Honour of the German Mother (1938) which awarded a bronze medal for having four children, silver for six and gold for eight or more. Family allowances of 100 Reichsmark for each child were also awarded and rail fares and school expenses were subsidised. In 1935, the Lebensborn (Spring of Life) project encouraged unmarried women with a good racial profile to become pregnant, with SS men as the fathers. |
Aims: Promotion of Gender Equality: Castro's government promoted gender equality through policies aimed at empowering women, increasing their participation in the workforce, and providing support for working mothers. The Cuban government implemented measures such as maternity leave, childcare services, and equal pay legislation to support women's rights and participation in the economy. Results: Castro's government introduced several legal reforms aimed at promoting gender equality. These included the introduction of laws against discrimination, equal pay for equal work, and the provision of maternity leave. Women's participation in politics increased significantly after the revolution. The Federation of Cuban Women (FMC), founded in 1960 under the leadership of Vilma Espín, played a central role in advocating for women's rights and promoting their political participation. As of 2011, women in Cuba made up more than 80% of university students and around 68% of university graduates. Comparatively, women made up about 57% of undergraduates in the United States in 2008. Cuba has a relatively high representation of women in its national legislature, the National Assembly of People's Power. As of 2020, women accounted for 53.2% of the deputies in the National Assembly, which is more than double the % of women in U.S. House of Representatives. (23.7%) Cuba is ranked 6th globally. Women's participation in the labour force increased, particularly in sectors traditionally dominated by men, such as medicine, education, and science. The government actively promoted women's employment and encouraged their involvement in the revolutionary project. Women's participation in the labour force in Cuba is high compared to many other countries. According to the World Bank, the female labour force participation rate in Cuba was 54.6% in 2020 (about the same as the USA but higher than most of Latin America). The revolution brought improvements in healthcare access, including reproductive healthcare services. The government implemented policies to promote family planning, maternal health, and childcare. Access to contraception and abortion improved, allowing women greater control over their reproductive choices. Before the success of the Cuban Revolution in 1959, abortion in Cuba was illegal and contraceptives inaccessible. After the creation of the FMC in 1960, efforts were made to increase the reproductive rights of women in Cuba. In 1965, abortion was decriminalized and in 1979, abortion was made free and more easily accessible. |
Impact of policies on minorities
The defining characteristic of Nazism as an authoritarian regime was its brutal treatment of minorities and, in particular, its systematic persecution of the Jews. In many ways this was a simple extension of the ideas of social Darwinism that we saw underpinning European nationalism and imperialism in the late 19th century. Castro’s Cuba was the exact opposite. Rather than rejecting the liberal concept of universal human rights, Castro rejected the liberal faith that human rights would be guaranteed by capitalist democracy. In Cuba, systemic inequalities and social exclusion have been tackled via positive discrimination.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
Aims: Hitler's social policies aimed to engineer society according to Nazi racial ideology, which promoted the superiority of the "Aryan" race and the exclusion and persecution of minority groups deemed inferior, such as Jews, Roma, and disabled individuals. The Nazi concept of Volksgemeinschaft rejected the liberal concept of universal human rights. For the Nazis, not all humans were equally worthy, useful, or deserving Volksgenossen (social compatriots) and, consequently, had to be treated differently. Nazi concepts of racial degeneracy and social deviance (behaviour that violated social norms) were rooted in a similar pseudoscientific explanations that ultimately reduced everything to the importance of ‘blood’. They believed that, because of their hereditary bloodline, Germans were the ‘Aryan’ Herrenvolk (master race), as were other Germanic peoples, including the English and Scandinavians. The French and northern Italians were considered to be Germanic. However, Slavs (including Poles, Serbs, and Russians) and Jews were described as Untermenschen ‘subhumans’, who were destined to be enslaved or eliminated by the Herrenvolk. Hitler's government implemented eugenics programs aimed at promoting "racial hygiene" and "purifying" the German gene pool. This included forced sterilization of individuals deemed "genetically defective" and measures to encourage "racially pure" individuals to procreate. Impact: Hitler's policies created social divisions and hierarchies based on racial and ethnic identity, with "Aryan" Germans placed at the top of the hierarchy and minority groups subjected to discrimination, segregation, and violence. This led to the persecution, antisemitic laws and actions were gradual but grew in their significance. Two important examples were the 1935 Nuremburg Laws which deprived German Jews of citizenship and forbade marriage or sexual relations between Jews and German citizens, and in the November 1938 attack on synagogues and Jewish property, Kristallnacht. In the end this led to the genocide of millions of Jews, Roma, disabled individuals, and other minority groups during the Holocaust. |
Aims: In Cuba, policies aimed at assisting social minorities have been implemented with the overarching goal of promoting social justice, equality, and inclusion. These policies target marginalized groups such as Afro-Cubans, women, people with disabilities, and those from low-income backgrounds. In March 1959 Fidel Castro announced in a speech (Proclamation against discrimination) he would attempt to end racial discrimination in Cuban society. Impact: Castro repealed all pre-1959 laws that allowed or enforced racial discrimination. He also closed down separate Black associations and societies. Legal protections against racial discrimination are enshrined in the Cuban Constitution, and measures have been taken to address racial disparities in employment, housing, and other areas. Its wide-reaching economic and social reforms clearly benefited the majority of Afro-Cubans who were the lowest on the social scale. Access to housing, education and health services improved dramatically, as did the representation of black people among a wider range of professions. Afro-Cuban women have been particular beneficiaries of the revolution’s progressive social legislation, gaining much-improved employment opportunities. Afro-Cubans are well represented in various levels of government and leadership positions. The Cuban government has implemented measures to promote diversity and inclusion in political institutions, resulting in the election of Afro-Cuban representatives and officials. Afro-Cuban culture and heritage are celebrated and promoted throughout Cuban society. Afro-Cuban music, dance, and art play a significant role in national identity and cultural expression, highlighting the contributions of Afro-Cubans to Cuban culture. |
Extent to which authoritarian control achieved.
An authoritarian state that exercises most control is a totalitarian state. There are four characteristics that distinguish totalitarianism from authoritarianism, and it is clear that both Hitler’s Germany and Castrol’s Cuba qualify as totalitarian regimes on each criterion:
- The intensity and effectiveness of the authoritarianism in the regime.
- The importance of ideology as a key feature of the regime
- The extent to which rival non-state actors are tolerated or weakened by the regime.
- The level of public engagement that is expected in support of the regime.
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Totalitarianism is not ‘worse’ that authoritarianism, it is simply a measure of degree of state control over the individual and fits the IB concern with the ‘extent to which authoritarian control achieved’. For example, all authoritarian states use propaganda that seeks to promote social solidarity and some degree of social depoliticisation, but only totalitarian regimes seek a social transformation through the propagandisation of culture and the arts.
In conclusion, it is hard to say which was more totalitarian. Theoretically Cuba had a wider range of controls because of the direct state control over so much of Cuban economic and social life and because the state was altogether more invasive. But Nazi Germany oppression was particularly efficient. It should also be noted that the degree of social control achieved does not on its own explain how effective or indeed how popular the regime was. As we have seen, the most effective form of social control happens when the citizen voluntarily consents to be governed and both Cuba and Nazi Germany enjoyed considerable popular support.
In conclusion, it is hard to say which was more totalitarian. Theoretically Cuba had a wider range of controls because of the direct state control over so much of Cuban economic and social life and because the state was altogether more invasive. But Nazi Germany oppression was particularly efficient. It should also be noted that the degree of social control achieved does not on its own explain how effective or indeed how popular the regime was. As we have seen, the most effective form of social control happens when the citizen voluntarily consents to be governed and both Cuba and Nazi Germany enjoyed considerable popular support.
Hitler's Germany |
Castro's Cuba |
The key feature of Nazi totalitarianism was the efficacy of the state control. When compared to Mussolini’s Italy for example, the German state was simply more effective in getting citizens to carry out desired actions and efficient at carrying out centralised decisions. The Gestapo and SS were very good at what they did. Ideology was central to the Nazi state and as we have seen policies were carried out in line with ideology rather than mere pragmatism. A good example of this were the various socio-cultural policies associated with women’s rights. For ideological reasons women were denied a role in contributing to the war effort until late into the war. This was economically harmful. Rival non-state actors were only tolerated when they were politically benign or co-opted. Trade unions, the church, other political parties, youth organisations, independent arts and media were neutralised or directly controlled by the state. Free time and leisure became usefully directed (KDF) and individuals were expected to report on their neighbours. Enthusiastic public engagement was expected at every level in society, as was explicit conformity in day-to-day life. The displaying of Nazi flags or expected greeting of ‘Heil Hitler’ were a good illustration of this and dissent was hard to express. The Nuremberg rallies and enthusiastic contributions to voluntary party social organisations were also good examples. |
The central difference with Castro’s totalitarianism when compared to Nazi Germany is the extent to which the state controlled the minutiae of everyday life. When the state via the command economy controls employment, housing, healthcare, education, and food, behaving in such a way as to gain preferential access to these resources becomes second nature. This is an indirect form of total control. The apparently compliant citizen is actually acting rationally because it their own or their family’s best interest to act in this way. The interest of the state and the interests of the citizen correspond so closely that the individual may not even be aware of being controlled. The ideology as in Nazi Germany is central to everything that state sets out to achieve. But in Cuba the ideology is based on an optimistic view of human nature that aspires to social and economic equality and cooperative, universal ideals of justice. Rival non-state actors are not tolerated in Cuba, but in reality, there is probably less of them. Opponents have chosen exile in their hundreds of thousands. In addition, the Cuban state successfully generated widespread consent through genuinely popular socio-political measures that have transformed Cuba for the better. If there are enthusiastic displays of support for the regime, the Party bureaucratic nomenklatura have every reason to engage in this public support, as do ordinary members of the public hoping to gain access to monopoly state resources. |
... and a final word.
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