IB Paper 2 - Topic 8: Independence movements (1800-2000) - Completed revision templates - India and the Congo.
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Theme 1 - Origin and rise of independence movements, up to the point of independence
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This is a fairly predictable essay question because the syllabus clearly defines the factors that you will be invited to evaluate. It also follows the same conceptual approach we use when studying for the Matu. The choice of India and the Congo provide two examples with enough similarities and differences and the two different regions which are often the prerequisite for a compatative question.
An independence movement is a collective effort by a group of people within a particular region or territory to achieve political independence, sovereignty, and self-determination from external or colonial rule. These movements typically arise in response to perceived injustices, inequalities, or restrictions imposed by ruling powers, whether they be colonial empires, occupying forces, or oppressive regimes. |
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An overview and suggested line of argument.
An external factor of decolonisation refers to something that encouraged or made possible the process of decolonisation that was relatively ‘independent’ of the influence of either the coloniser or colonised. Often an external factor provided a context that might enable or hinder the process of decolonisation. External factors help explain the timing of the independence. An internal factor of decolonisation refers to something that encouraged or made possible the process of decolonisation that can be explained by events inside the colony or within the relationship between the colony and coloniser. Internal factors help explain the nature of decolonisation e.g. whether violent or negotiated or how effective the decolonisation is.
In India, internal factors were (relatively) more important than in Congo. India was socially and economically more advanced = nationalism, political ideology, independence movements and indirectly ruled. The Congo was governed directly with settlers and colonial administrators which made a gradual, negotiated transition very difficult. India put pressure on and forced (negotiated with) Britain gradually to grant home rule in stages from the 19th century. Only the final step (1947 partition) is to be explained by external factors (WWII). In the Congo there were no stages, nor complete decolonisation (WWII had little impact). External factors (Algeria/Suez) persuaded Belgium to grant independence as soon as any pressure for independence was applied. But Belgium (USA and others) also retained economic control (Union Miniere) by supporting civil war and a sympathetic authoritarian government (Mobutu).
India/UK external - timing explained by WWII (war), post-war economic austerity (socio-economic) and changed climate of international opinion and law (political ideology). India/UK internal – nature explained by indirect rule (political ideology of UK), Indian Congress Party (nationalism/ideology) impact and experience of WWII (war), Quit India Movement (war/political ideology), election of Attlee government (ideology) and the (socio-economic) development of India which encouraged literacy, nationalist unity, etc. Deep religious differences resulted in the violent balkanisation of India after 1947. June 1947, the last Viceroy of India, Lord Louis Mountbatten partition of British India into two separate dominions: India and Pakistan - Boundary Commission (Radcliffe line) to demarcate the borders between India and Pakistan. The plan was accepted by the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, = Indian Independence Act in July 1947.
Congo/Belgium external – timing explained by 1954-62 Algerian War and Suez 1956 (war), Bandung Conference 1955 and changed climate of international opinion and law (political ideology) and collapse of the market in minerals (socio-economic). Congo/Belgium internal – nature explained by direct rule (political ideology of Belgium), role of Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) and Patrice Lumumba, and the limited socio-economic development of the Congo which resulted in ineffective, violent, and accelerated decolonisation. Leopoldville riots of January 1959 – shocked government of Gaston Eyskens (Belgian PM 1958-61) and initiated move to decolonisation. Round Table Conference in Brussels in 1960 = elections May, handover 30 June 1960 but not competed until Mobutu’s coup d’etat which brought to power a leader suitable to the West.
Consequences (violent balkanisation) - The partition of British India in 1947 resulted in the creation of two separate independent nations: India and Pakistan. This division was primarily along religious lines, with India becoming a secular state with a Hindu majority and Pakistan being established as a homeland for Muslims. Later, in 1971, Pakistan further split into two separate countries: Pakistan and Bangladesh, following the Bangladesh Liberation War. The Congo faced secessionist movements within weeks of independence, most notably the declaration of independence by the province of Katanga under Moise Tshombe. This led to a series of conflicts, including interventions by Belgian and other foreign forces, contributing to a protracted crisis. In 1965, following a series of power struggles and political instability, Mobutu seized power in a military coup against President Joseph Kasavubu and Prime Minister Moise Tshombe.
There are six factors identified by the syllabus that you might be expected to evaluate: nationalism, poiitical ideology, religion, race, socio-economic factors and war. These can futher be analysed in the context of whether these factors might be external or internal.
Broad generic exam questions - external and internal factors
To what extent did external factors rather than internal factors contribute to the growth of two independence movements? November 2017
“External factors had the most significant impact on the growth of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. May 2019
Evaluate the importance of external factors in the growth of two independence movements, each from a different region. May 2021
Evaluate the importance of external factors in the growth of two independence movements, each chosen from a different region. November 2023
An external factor of decolonisation refers to something that encouraged or made possible the process of decolonisation that was relatively ‘independent’ of the influence of either the coloniser or colonised. Often an external factor provided a context that might enable or hinder the process of decolonisation. External factors help explain the timing of the independence. An internal factor of decolonisation refers to something that encouraged or made possible the process of decolonisation that can be explained by events inside the colony or within the relationship between the colony and coloniser. Internal factors help explain the nature of decolonisation e.g. whether violent or negotiated or how effective the decolonisation is.
In India, internal factors were (relatively) more important than in Congo. India was socially and economically more advanced = nationalism, political ideology, independence movements and indirectly ruled. The Congo was governed directly with settlers and colonial administrators which made a gradual, negotiated transition very difficult. India put pressure on and forced (negotiated with) Britain gradually to grant home rule in stages from the 19th century. Only the final step (1947 partition) is to be explained by external factors (WWII). In the Congo there were no stages, nor complete decolonisation (WWII had little impact). External factors (Algeria/Suez) persuaded Belgium to grant independence as soon as any pressure for independence was applied. But Belgium (USA and others) also retained economic control (Union Miniere) by supporting civil war and a sympathetic authoritarian government (Mobutu).
India/UK external - timing explained by WWII (war), post-war economic austerity (socio-economic) and changed climate of international opinion and law (political ideology). India/UK internal – nature explained by indirect rule (political ideology of UK), Indian Congress Party (nationalism/ideology) impact and experience of WWII (war), Quit India Movement (war/political ideology), election of Attlee government (ideology) and the (socio-economic) development of India which encouraged literacy, nationalist unity, etc. Deep religious differences resulted in the violent balkanisation of India after 1947. June 1947, the last Viceroy of India, Lord Louis Mountbatten partition of British India into two separate dominions: India and Pakistan - Boundary Commission (Radcliffe line) to demarcate the borders between India and Pakistan. The plan was accepted by the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, = Indian Independence Act in July 1947.
Congo/Belgium external – timing explained by 1954-62 Algerian War and Suez 1956 (war), Bandung Conference 1955 and changed climate of international opinion and law (political ideology) and collapse of the market in minerals (socio-economic). Congo/Belgium internal – nature explained by direct rule (political ideology of Belgium), role of Mouvement National Congolais (MNC) and Patrice Lumumba, and the limited socio-economic development of the Congo which resulted in ineffective, violent, and accelerated decolonisation. Leopoldville riots of January 1959 – shocked government of Gaston Eyskens (Belgian PM 1958-61) and initiated move to decolonisation. Round Table Conference in Brussels in 1960 = elections May, handover 30 June 1960 but not competed until Mobutu’s coup d’etat which brought to power a leader suitable to the West.
Consequences (violent balkanisation) - The partition of British India in 1947 resulted in the creation of two separate independent nations: India and Pakistan. This division was primarily along religious lines, with India becoming a secular state with a Hindu majority and Pakistan being established as a homeland for Muslims. Later, in 1971, Pakistan further split into two separate countries: Pakistan and Bangladesh, following the Bangladesh Liberation War. The Congo faced secessionist movements within weeks of independence, most notably the declaration of independence by the province of Katanga under Moise Tshombe. This led to a series of conflicts, including interventions by Belgian and other foreign forces, contributing to a protracted crisis. In 1965, following a series of power struggles and political instability, Mobutu seized power in a military coup against President Joseph Kasavubu and Prime Minister Moise Tshombe.
There are six factors identified by the syllabus that you might be expected to evaluate: nationalism, poiitical ideology, religion, race, socio-economic factors and war. These can futher be analysed in the context of whether these factors might be external or internal.
Broad generic exam questions - external and internal factors
To what extent did external factors rather than internal factors contribute to the growth of two independence movements? November 2017
“External factors had the most significant impact on the growth of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. May 2019
Evaluate the importance of external factors in the growth of two independence movements, each from a different region. May 2021
Evaluate the importance of external factors in the growth of two independence movements, each chosen from a different region. November 2023
Factor 1 - Nationalism - A cultural factor – cf. nationalism in 19th century Europe. Importance of modernisation e.g. railways, newspapers, educated middle class.
India/UK 1947– negotiated |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 – accelerated and violent |
Nationalism in British India was complicated by religious (regional) differences. Nationalism, especially as embodied by Gandhi provided a longstanding (19th C) ideological framework for resisting British colonial rule. Inspired by Italian unification (Mazzini Young Italy) and Ireland (Home rule). Indians began to view foreign colonial domination as unjust and illegitimate, colonial exploitation remembered in Indian Rebellion of 1857 or Amritsar massacre 1919. Nationalism also celebrated India's rich heritage as an ancient civilization deserving of independence. But there was also division. All India Muslim League (AIML), advocating for separate electorates and eventually the creation of Pakistan. |
Nationalism was typically a much later occurrence in the Congo because economic and social modernisation began later but the political and economic impact of WWII began to change this. |
Internal Indian National Congress (INC): Founded in 1885, the Indian National Congress became the primary political organization advocating for Indian independence. The British were forced to gradually allow for increasing Indian independence through a series of reforms and declarations in 1908, 1917, 1919, 1929 and 1935. Mahatma Gandhi (philosophy of nonviolent resistance, or Satyagraha), Civil Disobedience Movement, and Quit India Movement, Gandhi galvanized the masses and challenged British authority. The All-India Muslim League under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Muslim League gradually shifted towards advocating for a separate Muslim-majority nation, ultimately leading to the creation of Pakistan. The demand for Pakistan also contributed to the momentum of the Indian independence movement. But after 1947 these divisions would help cause significant religious violence. Social factors (also see below) encourage nationalist movements, e.g. University of Calcutta and newspapers like Bombay Chronicle, and publications like Young India. |
Internal Congolese nationalism was influenced by the broader Pan-Africanist movement, which promoted solidarity and cooperation among African nations in their struggle against colonialism and imperialism. Nationalist movements in the Congo often emphasised the revival and promotion of Congolese culture, languages, and traditions as a means of asserting national identity and pride. This included efforts to reclaim and celebrate indigenous cultural practices that had been marginalised or suppressed under colonial rule. It wasn’t until the late 1950s that political organizations advocating for Congolese independence began to emerge (MNC see below) |
External Nationalist movements across the world, fuelled by the ideas of self-determination and anti-colonialism, inspired, and bolstered the Indian independence movement, e.g. In Ireland the Easter Rising of 1916 and the subsequent War of Independence, inspired nationalists in other colonial territories, including India. Also, Egypt which formally independent in 1922. And during WWII Indochina. WWII encouraged Indian Nationalism. Indian National Army, led by Subhas Chandra Bose, was a military force formed during World War II with the aim of liberating India from British rule. The INA's activities, including its role in the Burma Campaign and the Azad Hind Radio broadcasts, bolstered nationalist sentiment and highlighted the contradictions of British imperialism. Idea of self-determination of nations (and anti-imperialism) is enshrined in the Atlantic Charter and the United Nations. The issuance of the Atlantic Charter signalled a shift in global politics towards greater emphasis on democracy, human rights, and decolonization, the establishment of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights |
External The experience of World War II and the struggle against Nazi occupation in Europe influenced nationalist sentiments in the Congo. Congolese soldiers who fought alongside Allied forces in Africa and Europe returned home with new ideas about self-determination and independence. (see War below) As in India, post-war international climate and Cold War, UN etc. encouraged independence movements. Events in the Congo were very much part of what British PM Harold Macmillan called ‘the winds of change’. The wave of nationalist anti-colonial movements esp.in Africa after the Suez crisis (1956) and war in Algeria (from 1954) see war below. Independence won in Sudan 1956 and Ghana (Gold Coast) 1957. The broader context of decolonisation in in India and Africa and the global anti-colonial movement also influenced the rise of Congolese nationalism. The Bandung Conference (1955), which brought together leaders from newly independent Asian and African countries, inspired nationalist movements across the continent. |
Past Paper Questions
Compare and contrast the importance of nationalism to two independence movements, each from a different region. May 2018
Examine the importance of nationalism in the rise of two independence movements, each from a different region. November 2019
Evaluate the importance of nationalism to the development of two independence movements. May 2023
Compare and contrast the importance of nationalism to two independence movements, each from a different region. May 2018
Examine the importance of nationalism in the rise of two independence movements, each from a different region. November 2019
Evaluate the importance of nationalism to the development of two independence movements. May 2023
Factor 2 - Political ideology
India/UK 1947– negotiated |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 – accelerated and violent |
Political ideology within India was closely associated with nationalism (see above), religion (see below) and with some relatively minor socialist - but not communist - influence. More important ideologically was the external influence of the Cold War and the anti-imperialism of both the USA and USSR. |
As in India, political ideology was largely associated with nationalism tinged with socialism but as in Cuba, circumstances and the Cold War saw the Lumumba move closer to communism and the USSR. |
Internal Nationalist leaders and organizations effectively mobilized people around the common goal of independence. Political parties like the Indian National Congress (INC) founded in 1885, which by 1906 had adopted the aim of swaraj or 'home rule' (cf. influence of Irish Home Rule movement.) Socialism was a minority influence. After independence in 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru's government pursued a mixed economy model, with an emphasis on state-led development, land reforms, and public sector expansion through initiatives like the Five-Year Plans. 1945 General Election and Attlee Government (depending on definition you might see this as an external factor because it helps explain the timing) The Labour Party won a landslide victory in the 1945 general election, and socialist/anti-imperialist Clement Attlee Prime Minister and manifesto "Let Us Face the Future." Labour politician Stafford Cripps’s WWII ‘mission’ to India had laid the foundations. This was in direct contrast to Churchill. Attlee established the Mountbatten Plan = partition of India and the creation of two independent dominions, India, and Pakistan, on August 15, 1947. |
Internal It wasn’t until the late 1950s that political organizations advocating for Congolese independence began to emerge. One of the most prominent was the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), founded by figures such as Patrice Lumumba, Cyrille Adoula, and Joseph Ileo. The MNC and other nationalist groups organized protests, strikes, and campaigns calling for self-rule and an end to Belgian colonialism. They demanded political representation, social justice, and economic opportunities for the Congolese people. Like Castro, initially, the MNC's primary focus was on advocating for Congolese independence from Belgian colonial rule and promoting nationalist goals such as self-determination. Patrice Lumumba, the charismatic leader of the MNC, had socialist-leaning views, advocating for policies aimed at addressing social inequality, promoting economic development, and nationalizing key industries and redistributing land. He drew inspiration from Marxist ideas and envisioned a post-independence Congo that prioritized the interests of the working class and pursued a path of social and economic justice. |
External After WW1 UK had been able to ignore the anti-colonialism of Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points but not so after WWII. Britain’s dependency on US loans (Marshall Aid) and military (NATO) meant that it was very dependent on US goodwill. Both Cold War superpowers (for different reasons) supported Indian independence. Both the USSR and USA were anti-imperial powers. The Cold War rhetoric of freedom, democracy, and self-determination resonated with nationalist movements worldwide, including in India. |
External The Cold War is central to understanding how the Congo crisis developed. In the 1950s USA NSC-68 fear about the global spread of Communism = Korean intervention and overthrow of socialist Arbenz in Guatemala (1954). Also needs to be understood in the context of Cuba (1959) and ongoing struggle in Vietnam. Lumumba seen as African Castro and like Castro increasingly dependent on USSR. |
Past Paper Questions
Evaluate the importance of political ideology in the rise of two independence movements, each chosen from a different region. November 2023
“Political factors had the most influence on the rise of independence movements in the period 1800-2000.” Discuss, with reference to two movements, each chosen from a different region. November 2024
Evaluate the importance of political ideology in the rise of two independence movements, each chosen from a different region. November 2023
“Political factors had the most influence on the rise of independence movements in the period 1800-2000.” Discuss, with reference to two movements, each chosen from a different region. November 2024
Factor 3 - Religion - Internal Factor
India/UK 1947– negotiated |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 – accelerated and violent |
Religion is very much an internal factor. Religious divisions – Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs - within British India would have a significant impact on the process of decolonisation but it was not a major cause of decolonisation. It might be argued that religion delayed the decolonisation movement in India because it divided the opposition to British rule and made the British justly fearful that religious conflict would break out if independence was awarded. The British introduced the system of communal electorates, which allocated seats in legislative bodies based on religious identity. This led to the politicization of religious identities and the emergence of religious-based political parties like the All-India Muslim League (AIML), advocating for separate electorates and eventually the creation of Pakistan. The All-India Muslim League (AIML), advocating for separate electorates and eventually the creation of Pakistan. Role of Religious Leaders: Religious leaders and institutions played various roles in the independence movement. Figures like Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, a prominent Muslim leader and Congress member, advocated for Hindu-Muslim unity and opposed the partition of India. Conversely, there were also religious leaders who supported the idea of partition, such as Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the leader of the AIML. |
The divisions in the Congo were not religious but rather ethnic, tribal, and geographic. The Congo is home to a multitude of ethnic groups, each with its own language, traditions, and socio-cultural practices (and religions). It was ethnic diversity has contributed to the formation of distinct regional identities and sometimes tensions between different groups that could be exploited by Belgium both during and after the colonial period. If religion played a role, it was through the Catholic missionaries who educated and westernised the Congolese. These missions established schools, hospitals, and churches, and their presence contributed to the spread of Christianity and the development of indigenous leadership within Congolese communities. Missionary schools and institutions became centres for education and social mobilization, fostering a sense of identity and agency among Congolese students. Some Congolese intellectuals and leaders, including Patrice Lumumba, received their education at missionary schools, where they were exposed to the French language and Western ideas of democracy, human rights, and self-determination. |
Past Paper Questions
“Religion was an important factor in the development of independence movements.” With reference to two independence movements, each from a different region, to what extent do you agree with this statement? November 2018
“Religion was an important factor in the development of independence movements.” With reference to two independence movements, each from a different region, to what extent do you agree with this statement? November 2018
Factor 4 - Socio-economic factors – largely internal. Socio-economic factors are extensive (varied), internal and external and always important. Externally WWII had weakened Europe economically and explains the timing of decolonisation (See war below) and internally the indirect form for imperialism (social co-optation of Indian elite but not in the Congo) explains the nature (negotiated or accelerated/violent) of decolonisation.
India/UK 1947– negotiated |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 – accelerated and violent |
Economic Policies such as the extraction of raw materials, imposition of high taxes, and discriminatory trade practices contributed to impoverishment and economic hardship among the Indian population. This stark inequality fuelled resentment and contributed to the mobilization of nationalist movements. The British introduced various land revenue systems in India, such as the Permanent Settlement in Bengal which imposed heavy burdens on peasant communities and led to widespread indebtedness and landlessness. Industrialisation = decline of traditional handicrafts and the exploitation of labour in factories. The development of technology - the railways, the postal system - and the spread of the English language created greater unity in India than ever before which the nationalist Congress Party could exploit. Socio-cultural Britain encouraged Western-style education, which developed an educated middle class who became the leaders of India. Indian leaders such as Gandhi and Nehru were educated as lawyers in England. Indian universities, colleges, and schools became centres of nationalist activities and intellectual discourse. Institutions like the Aligarh Muslim University, the University of Calcutta, and the Banaras Hindu University played pivotal roles in nurturing nationalist ideologies and producing leaders for the independence movement. Newspapers, journals, and publications played a crucial role in disseminating nationalist ideas and mobilizing public opinion. Newspapers like The Hindu, The Bombay Chronicle, and publications like Young India and Harijan served as platforms for nationalist leaders to express their views and galvanize support. |
Economic Belgian colonial rule in the Congo was characterized by the ruthless exploitation of the country's natural resources, particularly rubber, ivory, and minerals such as copper and cobalt. The colonial administration and private companies extracted wealth from the Congo while subjecting the Congolese people to forced labour, brutal treatment, and economic exploitation. The benefits of Congo's natural wealth were disproportionately enjoyed by Belgian settlers, colonial officials, and multinational corporations, while the majority of Congolese people lived in poverty and deprivation. Belgian colonial policies prioritized the extraction of raw materials for export rather than investing in local industries or infrastructure development in the Congo. As a result, the Congolese economy remained largely underdeveloped, reliant on primary commodity exports, and vulnerable to fluctuations in global commodity prices. Socio-cultural WWII stimulated the Belgian Congo economically, through increasing demand for its raw materials. The social consequences of this industrialisation and economic growth - one-quarter of the population living in urban areas. Through the 1950s living standards rose appreciably, particularly in the urban areas. The Congolese were riding 700,000 bicycles by the end of the decade compared with only 50,000 at its beginning. The rural aspect of 'development policy' set out to create a class of small, independent farmers. The economic boom of WWII and post-war ended when prices for mineral exports (cobalt/copper) collapsed in 1957 = urban unemployment. Leopoldville riots of January 1959 – shocked government of Gaston Eyskens (PM 1958-61.) and initiated move to decolonisation. Round Table Conference in Brussels in 1960 = elections May, handover 30 June 1960. Like India regional differences (tribal) created problems that made decolonisation difficult. The Belgians implemented different administrative policies and economic strategies in various parts of the country, leading to uneven development. Some regions, particularly areas rich in natural resources such as Katanga, received more investment and Belgium (and MNCs) were keen to maintain their interest post-independence. |
Past Paper Questions
Discuss the importance of social and economic factors in the rise of one independence movement, up to the point of independence. November 2020
Discuss the importance of social and economic factors in the rise of one independence movement, up to the point of independence. November 2020
Factor 5 - War – external - This is a good illustration of the gradual negotiated and accelerated nature of decolonisation in the two case studies. Direct Indian involvement in WW1/2 resulted in home rule being won. This was not the case in the Congo.
India/UK 1947– negotiated |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 – accelerated and violent |
World War I (1914-1918): Contribution of Indian Soldiers: India made significant contributions to the British war effort during World War I, with over a million Indian soldiers serving in various theatres of the war. Their participation led to increased demands for political recognition and representation for India. The aftermath of World War I saw the introduction of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms in 1919, which introduced limited self-government in India. World War II (1939-1945): The onset of World War II saw the emergence of the Quit India Movement in 1942, demanding an end to British rule in India. The British response, marked by mass arrests of nationalist leaders and repression, further intensified anti-colonial sentiments and united Indians in their demand for independence. The Indian National Army (INA), led by Subhas Chandra Bose, emerged during World War II as a force fighting against British rule in India. The British government's realization of the need for post-war reconstruction and the changing global political landscape led to the dispatch of missions like the Cripps Mission to India, aiming to negotiate a settlement for Indian independence. |
WWII seemed to have relatively little direct impact on the Congo. Unlike the Dutch in Indonesia, Belgian decolonisation did not appear imminent as the Second World War ended. The Congo had not suffered occupation, and in 1945 seemed to be one of the most stable examples of colonialism. But there had been impact (see above). Algerian War (1954-1962) The brutal and protracted nature of the Algerian War had a profound effect on Belgian policymakers. The number of French military personnel killed estimated to be between 25,000 and 30,000 + 1000s French civilians. 1m Algerians? A cautionary tale about maintaining colonial rule through force + international condemnation of French actions in Algeria influenced Belgian thinking. Suez Crisis (1956) Highlighted the declining power and influence of European colonial powers, including Britain and France. Belgium took note of the diplomatic and military failure of the Suez intervention and USA hostility which further underscored the inevitability of decolonization. However, the Belgians were able to exploit US fears of communism to hold on their economic interests in the region via the compliant dictator Mobutu. |
Past Paper Questions
Evaluate the role of war as a cause for the rise of two independence movements, each from a different region. May 2021
Examine the importance of war to the rise of independence movements in two states, each chosen from a different region. November 2022
Evaluate the importance of wars to the rise of two independence movements in the period 1800-2000. May 2024
Evaluate the role of war as a cause for the rise of two independence movements, each from a different region. May 2021
Examine the importance of war to the rise of independence movements in two states, each chosen from a different region. November 2022
Evaluate the importance of wars to the rise of two independence movements in the period 1800-2000. May 2024