IB Paper 2 - Topic 8: Independence movements (1800-2000) - Completed revision templates - India and the Congo.
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Theme 2 - Methods used and reasons for success
This second theme on decolonisation is just an extension of the first and requires very little additional knowledge. The first theme explained why decolonisation movements appeared (internal and external factors), here the question is concerned with how decolonisation happened and why it was (or was not completely) successful.
India became independent in August 1947. It was a final clean break that resulted from an incremental and negotiated transfer of power (with occasional violence) that had begun in the 19th century. WWII brought the situation to a head, resulting in the Mountbatten partition of British India into two separate states. But the aftermath was violent with communal riots, internecine massacres, and a major humanitarian crisis (estimated up to 2 million deaths).
In contrast, the Congo was given ‘nominal’ independence (June 1960) after a very brief period of violent unrest (Leopoldville riots of January 1959), but the Belgians didn’t entirely leave. The Cold War fear of the USSR and need to protect international mineral interests in Katanga resulted in a violent crisis which brought in UN peacekeepers. Katanga leader Tshombe - funded/supplied by Belgium/USA - revolted against the elected Congo leader who Lumumba was assassinated following orders from President Eisenhower. Eventually Western interests were represented by Mobutu’s violent takeover in 1964.
There are four factors identified by the syllabus that you might be expected to evaluate: violent methods, peaceful methods, leaders and other factors. Other factors can also involve the consideration of factors included in theme 1 (e.g. socio-economic, political etc)
Broad generic exam questions
Compare and contrast the methods used to achieve independence in two states, each from a different region. May 2017
Evaluate the factors, excluding leadership, that led to the success of one independence movement. May 2021
“Other factors were more important than leadership in the success of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. November 2021
Compare and contrast the methods used in achieving independence in two states. November 2022
This second theme on decolonisation is just an extension of the first and requires very little additional knowledge. The first theme explained why decolonisation movements appeared (internal and external factors), here the question is concerned with how decolonisation happened and why it was (or was not completely) successful.
India became independent in August 1947. It was a final clean break that resulted from an incremental and negotiated transfer of power (with occasional violence) that had begun in the 19th century. WWII brought the situation to a head, resulting in the Mountbatten partition of British India into two separate states. But the aftermath was violent with communal riots, internecine massacres, and a major humanitarian crisis (estimated up to 2 million deaths).
In contrast, the Congo was given ‘nominal’ independence (June 1960) after a very brief period of violent unrest (Leopoldville riots of January 1959), but the Belgians didn’t entirely leave. The Cold War fear of the USSR and need to protect international mineral interests in Katanga resulted in a violent crisis which brought in UN peacekeepers. Katanga leader Tshombe - funded/supplied by Belgium/USA - revolted against the elected Congo leader who Lumumba was assassinated following orders from President Eisenhower. Eventually Western interests were represented by Mobutu’s violent takeover in 1964.
There are four factors identified by the syllabus that you might be expected to evaluate: violent methods, peaceful methods, leaders and other factors. Other factors can also involve the consideration of factors included in theme 1 (e.g. socio-economic, political etc)
Broad generic exam questions
Compare and contrast the methods used to achieve independence in two states, each from a different region. May 2017
Evaluate the factors, excluding leadership, that led to the success of one independence movement. May 2021
“Other factors were more important than leadership in the success of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. November 2021
Compare and contrast the methods used in achieving independence in two states. November 2022
Factor 1 - Violence
India/UK 1947 |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 |
Violence was less important in the short-term but Indian independence movement had historically been punctuated by violence. While nonviolent methods were predominant, there were also instances of armed struggle and militant resistance against British rule. Indian National Army (INA) led by Subhas Chandra Bose pursued armed resistance against British colonialism. However, these movements were relatively small-scale and did not enjoy widespread popular support. |
The Leopoldville riots (now Kinshasa) January 1959, sparked by a strike in the port city of Matadi, where Congolese workers protested poor working conditions and discriminatory treatment by Belgian employers. Riots targeted symbols of Belgian authority, such as government buildings, police stations, and businesses owned by Belgians. In the context of Algerian War etc. this persuaded the Belgians to grant political independence. i.e. fear of future violence (war). Violence was more important as Western powers sought to defend their strategic and economic interests in the region. Western companies and multinational corporations exploited the DRC's natural resources, including minerals such as copper, cobalt, and diamonds, often in collaboration with corrupt government officials and armed groups. The West encouraged violent secessionist movements in various regions, most notably in Katanga and Kasai. Declassified documents reveal that the CIA collaborated with Belgian intelligence to orchestrate Lumumba's removal from power. The CIA provided financial and logistical support to Congolese political opponents, facilitated the secession of mineral-rich Katanga province, and covertly supplied weapons to anti-Lumumba forces. |
Past paper questions
With reference to two independence movements, to what extent was violence an important method of achieving independence? May 2019
“Violent methods were essential to the achievement of independence.” Discuss with reference to two states. May 2022
“Violent methods were more significant than non-violent methods in achieving independence.” Discuss, with reference to two states. May 2023
With reference to two independence movements, to what extent was violence an important method of achieving independence? May 2019
“Violent methods were essential to the achievement of independence.” Discuss with reference to two states. May 2022
“Violent methods were more significant than non-violent methods in achieving independence.” Discuss, with reference to two states. May 2023
Factor 2 - Peaceful
India/UK 1947 |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 |
Civil Disobedience: Mahatma Gandhi’s non-violent (Satyagraha), civil disobedience campaigns, such as the Salt March of 1930 and the Quit India Movement of 1942, demonstrated the power of mass mobilization and nonviolent protest in challenging British authority. These movements galvanized public support and showcased the moral strength and unity of the Indian people in their quest for freedom. Constitutional Agitation: The Indian National Congress and other political organizations engaged in constitutional agitation, advocating for political reforms, representative government, and increased Indian participation in the governance of the country. Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru worked within the existing legal and political framework to advance nationalist goals as had previously been successful 1908, 1917, 1919, 1929 and 1935. |
The actual Belgian handover of political authority came about relatively peacefully after the Leopoldville riots. One of the most prominent was the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), founded by figures such as Patrice Lumumba, Cyrille Adoula, and Joseph Ileo. Influenced by Indian success the MNC engaged in political mobilization to raise awareness about colonial oppression and promote nationalist aspirations among the Congolese population. This involved organizing rallies, public meetings, and grassroots campaigns. The MNC utilized newspapers ‘La Voix du Congolais’ and pamphlets. The MNC lobbied foreign governments, international organizations, and the United Nations to support decolonization efforts. Strikes, in particular, were a powerful tool used by the MNC to disrupt economic activities, exert pressure on Belgian administrators, and highlight the grievances of Congolese workers led to Leopoldville riots. Congolese Round Table Conference held in Brussels, Belgium, in January 1960. This conference was a pivotal event in the lead-up to Congolese independence and involved negotiations between Congolese political leaders and Belgian colonial authorities to determine the terms of independence and the transition to self-rule. |
Past exam questions
“Non-violent methods were more effective than violent methods in achieving independence.” Discuss with reference to two states. November 2023
“Non-violent methods were more effective than violent methods in achieving independence.” Discuss with reference to two states. November 2023
Factor 3 - Leadership
India/UK 1947 |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 |
Mahatma Gandhi - nonviolent resistance, civil disobedience, and communal harmony. His philosophy of Satyagraha (truth-force). Gandhi's leadership during key campaigns like the Salt March and Quit India Movement mobilized widespread public support and garnered international attention. His emphasis on moral and ethical principles, including nonviolence and religious tolerance, shaped the ethos of the independence struggle and laid the foundation for India's democratic values. Jawaharlal Nehru played a crucial role as a key representative of the Indian National Congress and represented Indian interests in negotiations with the British government, particularly during the discussions surrounding the transfer of power. Nehru participated in the Cabinet Mission talks in 1946, which aimed to devise a constitutional framework for independent India. Nehru vehemently defended the unity of India during the negotiations, advocating for a strong and united Indian state despite communal tensions and the demand for a separate Muslim homeland. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, as the leader of the All-India Muslim League, played a pivotal role in the creation of Pakistan and the partition of British India in 1947. A skilled negotiator and articulate advocate for Muslim rights, Jinnah championed the demand for a separate Muslim homeland, arguing that Muslims could not coexist peacefully within a predominantly Hindu India. His unwavering commitment to the idea of Pakistan galvanized support among Muslims and ultimately led to the partition, resulting in the birth of Pakistan as an independent nation. Jinnah served as Pakistan's first Governor-General, shaping its early political landscape and institutions. |
Patrice Lumumba was a charismatic leader and as founder of the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), Lumumba mobilized support for the nationalist cause through his impassioned speeches, organizational skills, and unwavering commitment to Congolese sovereignty. Despite facing opposition from colonial authorities and political rivals, Lumumba's leadership propelled the Congo to independence in 1960, making him the country's first democratically elected Prime Minister. His ambitious plans for national development and ultimate dependency on USSR sealed his fate. Moïse Tshombe in Katanga sought to maintain control over the province's rich mineral resources and resist the authority of the central government (Lumumba). His alliance with foreign interests, including Belgian and Western powers, fuelled conflict and instability in the Congo. Tshombe's actions contributed to the fragmentation of the country and prolonged the struggle for national unity and stability. Joseph Mobutu rose from Chief of Staff of the Congolese Army to a central political figure. He played a key role in the country's tumultuous transition to independence, orchestrating a coup against Prime Minister Lumumba in 1960. This marked the beginning of Mobutu's ascent to power, as he consolidated control through repression and political manoeuvring. By 1965, Mobutu seized the presidency in a bloodless coup, establishing a dictatorship that would define Congolese politics for decades. His actions during this period set the stage for his long and authoritarian rule over the DRC. |
Past paper questions
“Strong leadership was essential to the success of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements, each from a different region. November 2017
“Successful independence movements were dependent on skillful and persuasive leaders.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. May 2018
Discuss the importance of leadership in the success of two independence movements, each from a different region. November 2019
“Other factors were more important than leadership in the success of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. November 2021
“Strong leadership was essential to the success of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements, each from a different region. November 2017
“Successful independence movements were dependent on skillful and persuasive leaders.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. May 2018
Discuss the importance of leadership in the success of two independence movements, each from a different region. November 2019
“Other factors were more important than leadership in the success of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. November 2021
Factor 4 - Other factors
India/UK 1947 |
Congo/Belgium 1960-65 |
Other reasons for success could focus on the role of other individuals who did not lead independence movements such as Attlee and Mountbatten. Otherwise look to the other revision sheet and especially the external contextual factors such as WWII, economic factors, UN, Cold War etc. For India the indirect nature of colonial rule and economic development which provided the movement with the possibility of a smooth transition might also be considered. Muhammad Ali Jinnah, as the leader of the All-India Muslim League, played a pivotal role in the creation of Pakistan and the partition of British India in 1947. A skilled negotiator and articulate advocate for Muslim rights, Jinnah championed the demand for a separate Muslim homeland, arguing that Muslims could not coexist peacefully within a predominantly Hindu India. His unwavering commitment to the idea of Pakistan galvanized support among Muslims and ultimately led to the partition, resulting in the birth of Pakistan as an independent nation. Jinnah served as Pakistan's first Governor-General, shaping its early political landscape and institutions. |
As with India other individuals might include Gaston Eyskens (Belgian PM 1958-61) or President Eisenhower and the leader of the CIA Allen Dulles. The external contextual factors are much more important. The economic boom of WWII and post-war ended when prices for mineral exports (cobalt/copper) collapsed in 1957 and as in India, post-war international climate and Cold War, UN etc. encouraged independence movements. In the 1950s USA NSC-68 fear about the global spread of Communism = Korean intervention and overthrow of socialist Arbenz in Guatemala (1954). Also needs to be understood in the context of Cuba (1959) and ongoing struggle in Vietnam. The wave of nationalist anti-colonial movements esp.in Africa after the Suez crisis (1956) and war in Algeria (from 1954) see war below. Independence won in Sudan 1956 and Ghana (Gold Coast) 1957. The Bandung Conference (1955). The direct, settler nature of colonialism is also useful in helping to explain why it was sudden and violent. |
Past paper questions
Compare and contrast the methods used to achieve independence in two states, each from a different region. May 2017
Evaluate the factors, excluding leadership, that led to the success of one independence movement. May 2021
“Other factors were more important than leadership in the success of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. November 2021
Compare and contrast the methods used in achieving independence in two states. November 2022
Compare and contrast the methods used to achieve independence in two states, each from a different region. May 2017
Evaluate the factors, excluding leadership, that led to the success of one independence movement. May 2021
“Other factors were more important than leadership in the success of independence movements.” Discuss with reference to two independence movements. November 2021
Compare and contrast the methods used in achieving independence in two states. November 2022