Lesson 10 - How did Mussolini consolidate and maintain his power?
Hitler's consolidation also provides us with the model with which all authoritarian states are compared. For example, the very concept of the 'dual state', the idea that a newly authoritarian state introduces new authoritarian institutions, such as new law courts for political prisoners, was originally devised by the German political scientist Ernst Fraenkel based on his experience as a socialist resister to Nazism before the Second World War. .
Coercion - Formal Social Control |
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a. Coercive Legal Methods - Important during consolidation
New authoritarian laws - In his first speech to parliament 16 November 1922, Mussolini was given an enormous vote of confidence and emergency powers for one year. In 1923, he set about changing the constitution in order to secure his position. In July, the Acerbo law was passed, changing the electoral system to ensure which ever party won most votes was guaranteed to form a majority government. Ending the system of proportional representation was supposed to end weak coalition government, but it also made single party dictatorship much more likely. In April 1924, buoyed by his foreign policy success in the Corfu incident and the widespread use of violence, intimidation and vote rigging, the Fascists and allies won almost 65% of the votes and took-up 374 out of 535 of the seats in parliament. |
Corfu Incident 1923 A diplomatic dispute between Greece and Italy resulting from the murder of an Italian general. Mussolini ordered a military response and refused to accept the authority of the League of Nations. The incident was concluded in favour of Italy at the expense of Greece and the credibility of the League. (More) |
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In January 1925, Mussolini gave an infamous speech to the Italain parliament which challenged them to stop him. In August 1925 a law was passed to ban meetings by opposition parties and in December Mussolini made himself head of government. In January 1926 Mussolini acquired the power to issue decrees without parliamentary support and insisted on being called Il Duce. Also in 1926 and after a failed assassination attempt, all non-Fascist parties were banned and their deputies expelled from the legislature, at the same time trade unions were also banned. Finally, in May 1928, further changes were made to the electoral system to restrict the franchise to male members of fascist syndicates who could only vote yes or no for candidates approved by the Fascist Party in an open, rather than secret ballot.
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New authoritarian institutions - the dual state - In order to control the Fascist party that had launched him into power, in December 1922 Mussolini created a Fascist Grand Council, an example of what Fraenkel called a prerogative state. in January 1923 the Council created a 30,000 strong paramilitary National Security Guard (MVSN), a militia which swore allegiance to Mussolini rather than the head of state (the king). This gave Mussolini the additional advantage of control over the fascist squadristi and their regional leaders the Ras. The Fascist Grand Council worked in parallel to the normative government’s Council of Ministers, with decisions made by the Grand Council being passed on to the Council of Ministers for approval. In August 1925 elected officials of local government were replaced by appointed Fascist officials called podesta. In October 1926 a new law court (the Special Tribunal) was established to try political cases.
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Ras Local bosses built power bases in various areas—e.g., Italo Balbo in Ferrara, Roberto Farinacci in Cremona, and Leandro Arpinati in Bologna. These men became known as ras (meaning “provincial viceroy” in Ethiopia’s Amharic language) and exercised considerable local power throughout the Fascist period. (Britannica) |
New authoritarian people - the power of patronage - Mussolini insisted on complete control of all appointments to the Fascist Grand Council. This enabled him to reward allies and to ensure that individuals loyal to him were in positions of influence. In 1923 the employer’s organisation the Confindustria decided to back Mussolini in response to his decision to stop investigations into tax evasion by big companies. In March 1923, Mussolini’s coalition partners the Nationalist Party merged with the Fascists. From April to June 1923 Mussolini worked on reducing the influence of Catholic Popolari Party another coalition partner. By passing a swathe of pro-Catholic policies - e.g. making religious education compulsory and banning contraception - Pope Pius XI withdrew his support from Popolari and forced their leader Sturzo to resign. In April 1923 with the support of the Pope, all Popolari ministers were sacked by Mussolini.
b. Coercive Force - Important during consolidation and maintenance
The establishment of the MVSN in January 1923 and the secret Fascist terrorist force Ceka in April 1924 were the first signs that Mussolini would resort to violence if legal means proved ineffective. Amerigo Dumini’s Ceka were responsible for over 100 killings during the 1924 election campaign and the murder of the socialist Matteotti in May 1924. In 1927, Mussolini formed the OVRA a secret police force charged with suppressing political opponents. Anti-Fascists, if caught, were often sent into internal exile (confino) in remote parts of the country. Some important political opponents were imprisoned, most notably the Communist Party leader and important intellectual, Antonio Gramsci. Mussolini’s Ceka often acted to weaken the influence of anti-Fascist Italian exiles by carrying out assassinations, for example the Rosselli brothers were murdered in France in 1937. Generally though, the level of oppression in Italy did not reach the heights of Hitler’s Germany or Stalin’s Russia. For example, attempts to create a mass party the I’inquadramento which was intended to increase the Fascist Party’s civic involvement and its ability to undertake surveillance of citizens. But by 1939 only about 6% of Italians were party members. As we shall see, Mussolini’s Italy was closer to being a mere authoritarian regime rather than fully totalitarian state.
Persuasion - Informal Social Control
Censorship
In July 1925 anti-Fascist newspapers were shut down and other newspapers were only allowed to print articles favourable to the government. From December 1925, all journalists were required to be on an approved register drawn up by the Fascist Party. It is important to note that in contrast to Hitler’s Germany, non-Fascist newspapers and radio stations were allowed to continue publishing and broadcasting, especially those run by the Catholic Church. In the 1930s control over radio was also less effective in Italy, partly because Italians owned far fewer radios than the Germans.
b. Coercive Force - Important during consolidation and maintenance
The establishment of the MVSN in January 1923 and the secret Fascist terrorist force Ceka in April 1924 were the first signs that Mussolini would resort to violence if legal means proved ineffective. Amerigo Dumini’s Ceka were responsible for over 100 killings during the 1924 election campaign and the murder of the socialist Matteotti in May 1924. In 1927, Mussolini formed the OVRA a secret police force charged with suppressing political opponents. Anti-Fascists, if caught, were often sent into internal exile (confino) in remote parts of the country. Some important political opponents were imprisoned, most notably the Communist Party leader and important intellectual, Antonio Gramsci. Mussolini’s Ceka often acted to weaken the influence of anti-Fascist Italian exiles by carrying out assassinations, for example the Rosselli brothers were murdered in France in 1937. Generally though, the level of oppression in Italy did not reach the heights of Hitler’s Germany or Stalin’s Russia. For example, attempts to create a mass party the I’inquadramento which was intended to increase the Fascist Party’s civic involvement and its ability to undertake surveillance of citizens. But by 1939 only about 6% of Italians were party members. As we shall see, Mussolini’s Italy was closer to being a mere authoritarian regime rather than fully totalitarian state.
Persuasion - Informal Social Control
Censorship
In July 1925 anti-Fascist newspapers were shut down and other newspapers were only allowed to print articles favourable to the government. From December 1925, all journalists were required to be on an approved register drawn up by the Fascist Party. It is important to note that in contrast to Hitler’s Germany, non-Fascist newspapers and radio stations were allowed to continue publishing and broadcasting, especially those run by the Catholic Church. In the 1930s control over radio was also less effective in Italy, partly because Italians owned far fewer radios than the Germans.
Propaganda
Image result for italian fascist flagThe Romanita movement was a propaganda movement designed to draw on the historical prestige of the ancient Roman empire. Fascists and their supporters in the media attempted to portray Mussolini as a new Caesar. The Fascists adopted the Roman salute and the Roman fasces was incorporated into the Italian flag.
Image result for italian fascist flagThe Romanita movement was a propaganda movement designed to draw on the historical prestige of the ancient Roman empire. Fascists and their supporters in the media attempted to portray Mussolini as a new Caesar. The Fascists adopted the Roman salute and the Roman fasces was incorporated into the Italian flag.
A new Roman empire in Africa was to be inspired by the glories of the past. Mussolini’s architects built massive concrete memorials on the battlefields that had witnessed humiliating Italian losses in the First World War. For Mussolini the humiliation had to be rewritten, as he said, ‘Now is not the time for history. This is the time for myths.’
From the mid 1920s, a government agency (LUCE) was created to make newsreels which were compulsorily broadcast in cinemas. The promotion of sport and its nationalist presentation through the mass media was first exploited by Mussolini and Hitler in the 1930s as they attempted to establish their regimes' credentials internationally. Mussolini's efforts to exploit the success of the Italian football team at the 1934 and 1938 World Cups were matched by Hitler's politicisation of the Berlin Olympics of 1936. |
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In the 1930s the government press office extended its influence and under the leadership of his son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano a Ministry of Press and Propaganda was established to copy Goebbels successful equivalent in Germany. But Italy’s culture - both liberal high arts and Catholic popular influence - resisted attempts to bring it into line. For example, attempts to generate support for an alliance with Germany and anti-Semitism found little popular support.
Charismatic leadership
The personal qualities of the leader matter more than any policy and therefore the propaganda image of the leader, exaggerated and embellished in paternal, regal or even divine terms, takes on a life of its own. In the Mussolini cult he becomes a man of action photographed shirtless in the snow or posed like a Roman emperor.
Charismatic leadership
The personal qualities of the leader matter more than any policy and therefore the propaganda image of the leader, exaggerated and embellished in paternal, regal or even divine terms, takes on a life of its own. In the Mussolini cult he becomes a man of action photographed shirtless in the snow or posed like a Roman emperor.
(In this famous image, Mussolini has had the horse handler removed from the original image to the right).
Always shot from below to detract from his lack of height, Mussolini took great care to project an image of masculinity and vitality. Images of Mussolini appeared everywhere in public buildings, along with such Fascist slogans as Credere, Obbedere, Combattere (Believe, Obey, Fight).
Always shot from below to detract from his lack of height, Mussolini took great care to project an image of masculinity and vitality. Images of Mussolini appeared everywhere in public buildings, along with such Fascist slogans as Credere, Obbedere, Combattere (Believe, Obey, Fight).
Activity
Prepare an essay plan in answer to the question ‘how did Mussolini first consolidate and then maintain his power?’ |
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Extension (essential for IB students.)
After Lenin's Russia, this is your second case study on the consolidation of power in an authoritarian state. As IB students you need to start looking out for similarities and differences between the two examples. The films below provide you with a generic, conceptual overview of how power can be consolidated. My pages on the IB section of the site also provide you with more details.
After Lenin's Russia, this is your second case study on the consolidation of power in an authoritarian state. As IB students you need to start looking out for similarities and differences between the two examples. The films below provide you with a generic, conceptual overview of how power can be consolidated. My pages on the IB section of the site also provide you with more details.
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