Lesson 10 - Vietnam and after - Fourth generation war
Big questions and some more answers
Last lesson we looked at the 'interwar years' leading up to the Second World War. This was the era of total war and 'third generation' warfare. Technologically the development of the bomber aircraft and fast moving tanks made possible the strategy of 'blitzkrieg' in which civilians as much as soldiers became legitimate targets of war. The aims of the war were also total. The fascist regimes with their racist ideologies demanded the subjugation or even extermination of whole peoples based on their ethnic origins. For those fighting fascism, whether in Spain in 1936, Stalingrad in 1942 or Iwo Jima in 1945, there could be no compromise. Unlike the end of the First World War there could not be a negotiated peace only the complete capitulation of the enemy. The war was finally brought to an end when the USA dropped the first two atomic bombs on Japan. But the atom bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the last time nuclear weapons would be used in warfare.
Last lesson we looked at the 'interwar years' leading up to the Second World War. This was the era of total war and 'third generation' warfare. Technologically the development of the bomber aircraft and fast moving tanks made possible the strategy of 'blitzkrieg' in which civilians as much as soldiers became legitimate targets of war. The aims of the war were also total. The fascist regimes with their racist ideologies demanded the subjugation or even extermination of whole peoples based on their ethnic origins. For those fighting fascism, whether in Spain in 1936, Stalingrad in 1942 or Iwo Jima in 1945, there could be no compromise. Unlike the end of the First World War there could not be a negotiated peace only the complete capitulation of the enemy. The war was finally brought to an end when the USA dropped the first two atomic bombs on Japan. But the atom bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the last time nuclear weapons would be used in warfare.
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After the Second World War the world became divided between the victors, with capitalist states aligned behind the USA and communist states behind the USSR (Soviet Russia). In Western Europe at least, this post war rivalry began a period of unprecedented peace which has lasted to the present day. It also ushered in a return to the earlier concept of limited war. By the 1950s a Cold War (Matu 12) had developed between two nuclear armed super powers - USA/USSR - who were able to guarantee that any 'total' war between them would result in Mutually Assured Destruction or MAD for short. This is not to say there was no further conflict between the superpowers. After 1945 war would be fought by 'proxy' through people fighting for capitalism or communism around the world: in China, Cuba, Hungary, Angola, Chile etc. and most famously in Vietnam. This is what this lesson will examine.
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Heritage object - Eddie Adams - Saigon Execution, 1968.
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Eddie Adams was an American war photographer. On the 1st of February 1968 of police chief General Loan, summarily executed Nguyễn Văn Lém, a Vietcong prisoner. At the moment the photograph is taken, the bullet is already in the head of the prisoner.
For more about the importance of this photograph see the BBC and TimeLife. |
A bit of background
In addition to the Cold War, the post-1945 period was also characterised by the period of decolonisation. (Matu 13) As we have seen, in the late 19th century Western countries rushed to take control over 'underdeveloped' parts of the world in places like Africa and South-East Asia. With European countries caught up in the Second World War, many of these colonised territories began to assert their independence. One notable example was in the French controlled colony of Indo-China. Under the leadership of Hồ Chí Minh, Vietnam fought a successful war of independence which culminated in the defeat of France at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. At the peace settlement that followed, the USA ensured the division of Vietnam with American interest invested in a capitalist pro-American southern Vietnamese state. The war between capitalist south and communist north which followed was the most significant 'proxy war' of the Cold War period. The USA was gradually dragged into the conflict; supplying arms and 'advisors' to begin with, in 1964 the first US ground troops arrived. At its peak at the end of 1968, nearly 500,000 US personnel were in Vietnam. By the war's end and American defeat in 1975, nearly 50,000 Americans and two million Vietnamese had died.
Fourth Generation War
The concept of fourth generational war was invented by historians in the 1980s to describe the way that war has evolved in most recent times. Just as the battle of Solferino marked the transition from first to second generational warfare, so Vietnam marked the transition from third to fourth. In fourth generational war, countries/states are not the only participants in battle. States are attacked by weaker non-state participants who use strategies of 'guerrilla war' and terrorism against their much more powerful state opponents. This is also known as asymmetrical warfare. Asymmetrical warfare refers to a type of conflict in which one side employs tactics and strategies that differ significantly from those of the other side (typically a stronger or more conventional force). These wars are long-lasting, unpredictable and target the political will of the state to continue fighting through the sophisticated use of propaganda. The current war in Gaza (2023) is a typical example of this type of warfare. In reality, it has been going on for years. See this article from 2012.
In addition to the Cold War, the post-1945 period was also characterised by the period of decolonisation. (Matu 13) As we have seen, in the late 19th century Western countries rushed to take control over 'underdeveloped' parts of the world in places like Africa and South-East Asia. With European countries caught up in the Second World War, many of these colonised territories began to assert their independence. One notable example was in the French controlled colony of Indo-China. Under the leadership of Hồ Chí Minh, Vietnam fought a successful war of independence which culminated in the defeat of France at Dien Bien Phu in 1954. At the peace settlement that followed, the USA ensured the division of Vietnam with American interest invested in a capitalist pro-American southern Vietnamese state. The war between capitalist south and communist north which followed was the most significant 'proxy war' of the Cold War period. The USA was gradually dragged into the conflict; supplying arms and 'advisors' to begin with, in 1964 the first US ground troops arrived. At its peak at the end of 1968, nearly 500,000 US personnel were in Vietnam. By the war's end and American defeat in 1975, nearly 50,000 Americans and two million Vietnamese had died.
Fourth Generation War
The concept of fourth generational war was invented by historians in the 1980s to describe the way that war has evolved in most recent times. Just as the battle of Solferino marked the transition from first to second generational warfare, so Vietnam marked the transition from third to fourth. In fourth generational war, countries/states are not the only participants in battle. States are attacked by weaker non-state participants who use strategies of 'guerrilla war' and terrorism against their much more powerful state opponents. This is also known as asymmetrical warfare. Asymmetrical warfare refers to a type of conflict in which one side employs tactics and strategies that differ significantly from those of the other side (typically a stronger or more conventional force). These wars are long-lasting, unpredictable and target the political will of the state to continue fighting through the sophisticated use of propaganda. The current war in Gaza (2023) is a typical example of this type of warfare. In reality, it has been going on for years. See this article from 2012.
War in the 21st Century
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Swiss historian Daniele Ganser talks about the importance of the media in 21st century via the events of 9/11.
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Wars fought by killer robots are no longer hypothetical. See this article by the Graduate Institute of Geneva.
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American atmospheric scientist Brian Toon explains how even a small nuclear war could destroy all life on earth.
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Activities
1. Explain the concepts of 'Cold War' and 'Mutually assured destruction'.
2. What are the main characteristics of 'Fourth generation' warfare.
Part 2 - Case study 1968 Tet offensive.
1. Explain the concepts of 'Cold War' and 'Mutually assured destruction'.
2. What are the main characteristics of 'Fourth generation' warfare.
Part 2 - Case study 1968 Tet offensive.