Lesson 4 - 1960s
The 1960s were one of the most dangerous decades of the Cold War. Early in the decade, unresolved tensions from the 1950s resurfaced in Berlin, where the building of the Berlin Wall (1961) physically divided Europe and symbolised the failure of negotiation. A year later, the world came close to nuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), the most dramatic confrontation of the entire Cold War. The shock of near-disaster encouraged both superpowers to reconsider their approach, but the hope of improved relations was soon challenged elsewhere. The United States became increasingly entangled in the escalating Vietnam War, while the Soviet Union faced renewed pressure from within the Eastern Bloc, culminating in the Prague Spring (1968) and its suppression. By the end of the decade, both sides recognised the need to reduce tension, paving the way for détente in the 1970s.
The Berlin Wall 1961
After Khrushchev’s Berlin Ultimatum of 1958, pressure over Germany intensified. East Germany was losing around 200,000 people a year, many of them skilled workers, who fled to the West through Berlin. This “brain drain” threatened the stability of the socialist state. Diplomatic attempts to resolve the issue collapsed after the U-2 affair (1960), and by 1961 Khrushchev believed the Soviets must act unilaterally.
On 13 August 1961, East German forces closed the border and began constructing the Berlin Wall. Concrete barriers, watchtowers and a heavily guarded “death strip” cut Berlin in two. The Wall solved the East German refugee crisis, but at enormous political cost. It became the most powerful symbol of a divided Europe — an admission that communist rule could only be maintained by force. Although the Wall reduced the risk of open conflict over Berlin, it entrenched the division of Germany for the next 28 years.
On 13 August 1961, East German forces closed the border and began constructing the Berlin Wall. Concrete barriers, watchtowers and a heavily guarded “death strip” cut Berlin in two. The Wall solved the East German refugee crisis, but at enormous political cost. It became the most powerful symbol of a divided Europe — an admission that communist rule could only be maintained by force. Although the Wall reduced the risk of open conflict over Berlin, it entrenched the division of Germany for the next 28 years.
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Berlin Crisis - Walsh 407-409. Begin with this film and then get the key information from the presentation.
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Activity 1
Using the presentation, the films and your textbook, explain a) Why the wall was built and how it worked. b) What the consequences were for the Cold War. |
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
We examine the Cuban missile crisis in two stages. Firstly we examine the causes, why Castro and Khrushchev decided to put the missiles on the island and why this presented a problem to the USA. (Walsh 346-52)
We examine the Cuban missile crisis in two stages. Firstly we examine the causes, why Castro and Khrushchev decided to put the missiles on the island and why this presented a problem to the USA. (Walsh 346-52)
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Activity 2
This activity asks you to imagine that you were part of President Kennedy's group of advisors, the so-called 'Ex comm' committee. You are going to advise the President about how to respond. You can download the worksheet here.
You should begin by reviewing the presentation above and watching the short film - Cuban Crisis Ex comm - from the Cold War series. It is important that you consider the options available to you empathetically, as if you were present in October 1962 and not with advantage of hindsight.
This activity asks you to imagine that you were part of President Kennedy's group of advisors, the so-called 'Ex comm' committee. You are going to advise the President about how to respond. You can download the worksheet here.
You should begin by reviewing the presentation above and watching the short film - Cuban Crisis Ex comm - from the Cold War series. It is important that you consider the options available to you empathetically, as if you were present in October 1962 and not with advantage of hindsight.
Activity 3
a) Using the film and the information above, explain how Kennedy was able to resolve the crisis. b) Using your textbook page 352, outline the main consequences of the Cuban crisis for for the development of the Cold War. 2022 - 60 years since the crisis new documents reveal how close the world was to nuclear war - Guardian. |
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The shock of Cuban missile crisis had shaken the superpowers into a period of relaxation of tensions that would later be called 'detente'. But from 1964 the USA became gradually entangled in a continuation of Vietnam's war for independence, (See decolonisation) whilst the USSR faced a reemergence of the desire for greater independence in its satellite states last seen in Poland and Hungary in 1956.
Extra and extension - The webpage that persuaded me that the internet might actually be useful in the history classroom - The National Security Archive at George Washington University and the tapes and trasncripts of the ExComm meeting.
Extra and extension - The webpage that persuaded me that the internet might actually be useful in the history classroom - The National Security Archive at George Washington University and the tapes and trasncripts of the ExComm meeting.
Vietnam (Walsh 353-65)
We have already seen how in the late 1940s and early 1950s the USA gradually became committed to the support of France in Indochina in order to stop the spread of communism. Vietnam had been divided at the Geneva Conference (1954) after the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu. The North, led by Ho Chi Minh, aimed to reunify Vietnam under communism; the South was backed by the United States. American involvement deepened through the 1950s as part of the Domino Theory, which held that a communist victory in Vietnam would trigger the collapse of Southeast Asia.
After the disputed Gulf of Tonkin incident (1964), President Johnson gained congressional approval to escalate military action. Between 1965 and 1968, the United States deployed more than half a million troops. Despite overwhelming military technology, U.S. forces struggled against Viet Cong guerrilla tactics, an unfamiliar environment, and a resilient enemy supported by China and the USSR.
The war provoked growing protest at home and damaged America’s international reputation. By the end of the decade, the conflict had become a costly and divisive quagmire, undermining confidence in U.S. Cold War strategy.
We have already seen how in the late 1940s and early 1950s the USA gradually became committed to the support of France in Indochina in order to stop the spread of communism. Vietnam had been divided at the Geneva Conference (1954) after the French defeat at Dien Bien Phu. The North, led by Ho Chi Minh, aimed to reunify Vietnam under communism; the South was backed by the United States. American involvement deepened through the 1950s as part of the Domino Theory, which held that a communist victory in Vietnam would trigger the collapse of Southeast Asia.
After the disputed Gulf of Tonkin incident (1964), President Johnson gained congressional approval to escalate military action. Between 1965 and 1968, the United States deployed more than half a million troops. Despite overwhelming military technology, U.S. forces struggled against Viet Cong guerrilla tactics, an unfamiliar environment, and a resilient enemy supported by China and the USSR.
The war provoked growing protest at home and damaged America’s international reputation. By the end of the decade, the conflict had become a costly and divisive quagmire, undermining confidence in U.S. Cold War strategy.
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Activity 4
You have already seen the film above in 11e - Vietnam: Camera at War - it is my favourite documentary. |
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Why do you think the US army blamed the media for the defeat in Vietnam? What other reasons help explain the cause of US defeat? In 11e we looked at the changing nature of warfare and how Vietnam is considered to be an early example of fourth generational warfare or assymetrical war. You might like to remind yourself of some of the points we made (exactly two years ago) here. The current war in Gaza (2023) is the latest example of fourth generational war. In contrast, the war in Ukraine (2022-) is not, so what is it?
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Activity 5
Draw up a table to compare the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam and the USA. (Walsh 365 is also useful) This is also important for our topic 'decolonisation and the Third World'. The table covers political, economic and social consequences but not cultural. Can you suggest what some of the cultural consequences of the war in Vietnam might be?
Asia Pacific Curriclum - Impact of the war on Vietnam.
L.A. Times on the cultural impact of Vietnam on the USA.
Draw up a table to compare the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam and the USA. (Walsh 365 is also useful) This is also important for our topic 'decolonisation and the Third World'. The table covers political, economic and social consequences but not cultural. Can you suggest what some of the cultural consequences of the war in Vietnam might be?
Asia Pacific Curriclum - Impact of the war on Vietnam.
L.A. Times on the cultural impact of Vietnam on the USA.
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Czechoslovakia 1968 (Walsh 404-6)
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As we saw earlier, in the post war period Czechoslovakia became a satellite state of the Soviet Union; it was a founding member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1949 and of the Warsaw Pact in 1955.
In the early 1960s, the Czechoslovak economy became severely stagnated. The industrial growth rate was the lowest in Eastern Europe. As a result, in 1965 the party approved the New Economic Model, introducing free market elements into the economy. On January 5, 1968, the Communist Party elected Alexander Dubček a Slovak reformer as first secretary of the KSČ (Slovak Communist Party). In April, Dubček launched an "Action Programme" of liberalisations that included increased freedom of the press, emphasis on consumer goods, and the possibility of a more democratic multi-party government. This became known as the Prague Spring. |
The new Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev - who had replaced Khrushchev who had been deposed in 1964 - at first tried to limit the changes through negotiations and diplomatic pressure. Then after a final failed attempt to force change through the Bratislava Declaration in August 1968, on the night of August 20 - August 21, 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia.
The justification of this invasion would later become known as the Brezhnev Doctrine, a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in any state of the Soviet bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to them all, and therefore justified the intervention of fellow socialist states.
The justification of this invasion would later become known as the Brezhnev Doctrine, a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in any state of the Soviet bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to them all, and therefore justified the intervention of fellow socialist states.
During the Warsaw Pact invasion, Soviet tanks ranging in numbers from 5,000 to 7,000 occupied the streets. They were followed by a large number of Warsaw Pact troops ranging from 200,000 to 600,000. During the attack of the Warsaw Pact armies, 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed (19 of those in Slovakia) and hundreds were wounded (up to September 3, 1968). Unlike in Hungary in 1956, Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist. He was arrested and taken to Moscow, along with several of his colleagues.
Finally, in April 1969, Dubček was replaced as First Secretary by Gustáv Husák.
As with the Americans in Vietnam, the Prague Spring was a blow to the confidence of the USSR. As a result, both superpowers sought to improve their relations, the consequence was detente. |
Consequences
The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, 300,000 people - typically highly qualified - were to leave Czechoslovakia. It was agreed that Dubček would remain in office and that a program of moderate reform would continue. On January 19, 1969, student Jan Palach set himself on fire in Prague's Wenceslas Square to protest the renewed suppression of free speech. 
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Activity 6
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Watch the Cold War episode on the Prague Spring.
a) Explain why there was support for economic and political reform in Czechoslovakia and why this presented problems for the USSR. b) What were the consequences of the Prague Spring for both Czechoslovakia and the Cold War. |