Lesson 4 - How did Mussolini consolidate and maintain his power?
As with many authoritarian states, Mussolini’s appointment as Prime Minister in 1922 did not suddenly transform Italian democracy into a dictatorship. It takes time to neutralise the influence of broader civil society - rival political parties, trade unions and religious groups - and to cut away their ability to mobilise and engage the loyalty of the public. Consolidation of an authoritarian state might require a new constitution, which formally removes fundamental rights and liberties, a new political system and new mechanisms of formal social control: concentration camps, secret police forces and new laws. Typically, consolidation also involves a realignment of the new authoritarian state: former allies are purged, and new useful alliances are forged.
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Coercion - Formal Social Control
a. Coercive Legal Methods - Important during consolidation
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New authoritarian laws - In his first speech to parliament 16 November 1922, Mussolini was given an enormous vote of confidence and emergency powers for one year.
In 1923, he set about changing the constitution in order to secure his position. In July, the Acerbo law was passed, changing the electoral system to ensure which ever party won most votes was guaranteed to form a majority government. Ending the system of proportional representation was supposed to end weak coalition government, but it also made single party dictatorship much more likely.
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In April 1924, buoyed by his foreign policy success in the Corfu incident and the widespread use of violence, intimidation and vote rigging, the Fascists and allies won almost 65% of the votes and took-up 374 out of 535 of the seats in parliament.
The kidnapping and murder of Giacomo Matteotti, a socialist deputy who openly criticized Mussolini and the Fascists, led to a political crisis. The ensuing backlash and accusations against the regime prompted Mussolini to further tighten his grip on power. The justification for these measures was framed around maintaining public order and national security. |
Corfu Incident 1923 A diplomatic dispute between Greece and Italy resulting from the murder of an Italian general. Mussolini ordered a military response and refused to accept the authority of the League of Nations. The incident was concluded in favour of Italy at the expense of Greece and the credibility of the League. (More) |
Mussolini and the Fascists argued that a single-party state was necessary to prevent chaos and protect Italy from internal and external threats, portraying opposition parties as subversive elements that endangered the nation. This narrative was used to legitimize the establishment of a fascist dictatorship and the suppression of all political dissent. Following the Matteotti Crisis, Mussolini introduced a series of laws that laid the groundwork for a totalitarian state:
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New authoritarian institutions - the dual state - In order to control the Fascist party that had launched him into power, in December 1922 Mussolini created a Fascist Grand Council, an example of what Fraenkel called a prerogative state. In January 1923 the Council created a 30,000 strong paramilitary National Security Guard (MVSN), a militia which swore allegiance to Mussolini rather than the head of state (the king). This gave Mussolini the additional advantage of control over the fascist squadristi and their regional leaders the Ras. The Fascist Grand Council worked in parallel to the normative government’s Council of Ministers, with decisions made by the Grand Council being passed on to the Council of Ministers for approval. In August 1925 elected officials of local government were replaced by appointed Fascist officials called podesta.
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Ras Local bosses built power bases in various areas—e.g., Italo Balbo in Ferrara, Roberto Farinacci in Cremona, and Leandro Arpinati in Bologna. These men became known as ras (meaning “provincial viceroy” in Ethiopia’s Amharic language) and exercised considerable local power throughout the Fascist period. (Britannica) |
In October 1926 a new law court (the Special Tribunal) was established to try political cases, allowing the government to arrest and exile political opponents without trial.
New authoritarian people - the power of patronage - Mussolini insisted on complete control of all appointments to the Fascist Grand Council. This enabled him to reward allies and to ensure that individuals loyal to him were in positions of influence. In 1923 the employer’s organisation the Confindustria decided to back Mussolini in response to his decision to stop investigations into tax evasion by big companies. In March 1923, Mussolini’s coalition partners the Nationalist Party merged with the Fascists. From April to June 1923 Mussolini worked on reducing the influence of Catholic Popolari Party another coalition partner. By passing a swathe of pro-Catholic policies - e.g. making religious education compulsory and banning contraception - Pope Pius XI withdrew his support from Popolari and forced their leader Sturzo to resign. In April 1923 with the support of the Pope, all Popolari ministers were sacked by Mussolini.
b. Coercive Force - Important during consolidation and maintenance
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The establishment of the MVSN in January 1923 and the secret Fascist terrorist force Ceka in April 1924 were the first signs that Mussolini would resort to violence if legal means proved ineffective. Amerigo Dumini’s Ceka were responsible for over 100 killings during the 1924 election campaign and the murder of the socialist Matteotti in May 1924. In 1927, Mussolini formed the OVRA a secret police force charged with suppressing political opponents. Anti-Fascists, if caught, were often sent into internal exile (confino) in remote parts of the country. But there were also not the same scale of concentration camps as in Germany or Russia. Camps such as the one on the island of Ventotene were used to detain political prisoners, including communists, socialists, and anti-fascist activists. These individuals were often held without trial and subjected to harsh conditions.
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Some important political opponents were imprisoned, most notably the Communist Party leader and important intellectual, Antonio Gramsci. Mussolini’s Ceka often acted to weaken the influence of anti-Fascist Italian exiles by carrying out assassinations, for example the Rosselli brothers were murdered in France in 1937. Generally though, the level of oppression in Italy did not reach the heights of Hitler’s Germany or Stalin’s Russia. For example, attempts to create a mass party the I’inquadramento which was intended to increase the Fascist Party’s civic involvement and its ability to undertake surveillance of citizens. But by 1939 only about 6% of Italians were party members. As we shall see, Mussolini’s Italy was closer to being a mere authoritarian regime rather than fully totalitarian state.
Persuasion - Informal Social Control
Persuasion - Informal Social Control
My three short films below explain the basic generic ideas that will help you make sense of the key features of informal social control.
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Censorship
In July 1925 anti-Fascist newspapers were shut down and other newspapers were only allowed to print articles favourable to the government. From December 1925, all journalists were required to be on an approved register drawn up by the Fascist Party. It is important to note that in contrast to Hitler’s Germany, non-Fascist newspapers and radio stations were allowed to continue publishing and broadcasting, especially those run by the Catholic Church. In the 1930s control over radio was also less effective in Italy, partly because Italians owned far fewer radios than the Germans.
In July 1925 anti-Fascist newspapers were shut down and other newspapers were only allowed to print articles favourable to the government. From December 1925, all journalists were required to be on an approved register drawn up by the Fascist Party. It is important to note that in contrast to Hitler’s Germany, non-Fascist newspapers and radio stations were allowed to continue publishing and broadcasting, especially those run by the Catholic Church. In the 1930s control over radio was also less effective in Italy, partly because Italians owned far fewer radios than the Germans.
Propaganda
The Romanita movement was a propaganda movement designed to draw on the historical prestige of the ancient Roman empire. Fascists and their supporters in the media attempted to portray Mussolini as a new Caesar. The Fascists adopted the Roman salute and the Roman fasces was incorporated into the Italian flag.
The Romanita movement was a propaganda movement designed to draw on the historical prestige of the ancient Roman empire. Fascists and their supporters in the media attempted to portray Mussolini as a new Caesar. The Fascists adopted the Roman salute and the Roman fasces was incorporated into the Italian flag.
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A new Roman empire in Africa was to be inspired by the glories of the past. Mussolini’s architects built massive concrete memorials on the battlefields that had witnessed humiliating Italian losses in the First World War. For Mussolini the humiliation had to be rewritten, as he said, ‘Now is not the time for history. This is the time for myths.’
From the mid 1920s, a government agency (LUCE) was created to make newsreels which were compulsorily broadcast in cinemas. The promotion of sport and its nationalist presentation through the mass media was first exploited by Mussolini and Hitler in the 1930s as they attempted to establish their regimes' credentials internationally. Mussolini's efforts to exploit the success of the Italian football team at the 1934 and 1938 World Cups were matched by Hitler's politicisation of the Berlin Olympics of 1936. |
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In the 1930s the government press office extended its influence and under the leadership of his son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano a Ministry of Press and Propaganda was established to copy Goebbels successful equivalent in Germany. But Italy’s culture - both liberal high arts and Catholic popular influence - resisted attempts to bring it into line. For example, attempts to generate support for an alliance with Germany and anti-Semitism found little popular support. (see also the informal social control of education)
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Charismatic leadership
The personal qualities of the leader matter more than any policy and therefore the propaganda image of the leader, exaggerated and embellished in paternal, regal or even divine terms, takes on a life of its own. In the Mussolini cult he becomes a man of action photographed shirtless in the snow or posed like a Roman emperor. |
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(In this famous image, Mussolini has had the horse handler removed from the original image to the right).
Always shot from below to detract from his lack of height, Mussolini took great care to project an image of masculinity and vitality. Images of Mussolini appeared everywhere in public buildings, along with such Fascist slogans as Credere, Obbedere, Combattere (Believe, Obey, Fight).
Always shot from below to detract from his lack of height, Mussolini took great care to project an image of masculinity and vitality. Images of Mussolini appeared everywhere in public buildings, along with such Fascist slogans as Credere, Obbedere, Combattere (Believe, Obey, Fight).
Activity
Prepare an essay plan in answer to the question ‘how did Mussolini first consolidate and then maintain his power?’
Prepare an essay plan in answer to the question ‘how did Mussolini first consolidate and then maintain his power?’
Extension (essential for IB students.)
After Lenin's Russia, this is your second case study on the consolidation of power in an authoritarian state. As IB students you need to start looking out for similarities and differences between the two examples. The films below provide you with a generic, conceptual overview of how power can be consolidated. My pages on the IB section of the site also provide you with more details.
After Lenin's Russia, this is your second case study on the consolidation of power in an authoritarian state. As IB students you need to start looking out for similarities and differences between the two examples. The films below provide you with a generic, conceptual overview of how power can be consolidated. My pages on the IB section of the site also provide you with more details.
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