Year 9
Unit 2 - Classical Greece
Lesson 1 - The Archaic Period
The period known as the Dark Ages came to an end around 800BC. From then until about 500BC, Greece was in a period known as the Archaic Period. This was the period immediately before the Classical period. It was during these three hundred years or so that what is called "the ancient Greek civilisation" began really to develop. It was a time of progress and increased wealth, during which art and poetry developed. The poet Homer, for example, lived during this period.
The period known as the Dark Ages came to an end around 800BC. From then until about 500BC, Greece was in a period known as the Archaic Period. This was the period immediately before the Classical period. It was during these three hundred years or so that what is called "the ancient Greek civilisation" began really to develop. It was a time of progress and increased wealth, during which art and poetry developed. The poet Homer, for example, lived during this period.
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The rediscovery of writing
During the Dark Ages, the Greeks had seemingly forgotten the art of writing. But at that time, along the coast of North Africa, there lived a great trading people known as the Phoenicians. The Phoenicians had developed a written language of their own. It must have been a difficult language to pronounce, because its alphabet consisted entirely of consonants. During the Archaic Period, the Greeks traded more and more frequently with the Phoenicians. Eventually they began to adapt and use the Phoenician alphabet as their own. They added extra signs for vowels, which made the language much easier to write and to pronounce. This is how the Greek alphabet was first developed. The birth of the Greek alphabet was very important. It was used to produce great Classical Greek poetry, drama and other literature. It also became the basis of the Latin alphabet, which formed the written language of ancient Rome. The Latin language, in turn, became the basis of most modern European languages. The spread of Greek colonies During the Archaic Period, many Greeks sailed away from Greece to set up new city states called "colonies" in foreign lands. There were several reasons for these emigrations from Greece: |
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- Sometimes people were asked to leave when the population of their home city became so great that food shortages became a problem. In such cases, a respected local man called a ‘founder’ would be appointed to lead a group of emigrants abroad to set up (or found) a new colony.
- Wars between Greek states caused some people to abandon their homes and sail away to what they hoped would be the safety of a new colony.
Even before the Archaic Period, Greek colonies had been established in Ionia, a coastal area of modern Turkey which is close to Greece.
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Throughout the Archaic Period, hundreds of more Greek colonies were set up along the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea. They were usually set up in places where there were good harbours for trading, good land for farming and where there was not too much opposition from local people. The map opposite shows the areas of the Mediterranean basin colonised by the Greeks by about 550 B.C. Most Greek colonies were copies of Greek city states. For many centuries, many of them remained centres of Greek learning and civilisation. |
Activities
- How was the Greek language first developed from its Phoenician origins?
- What is the origin of the world alphabet? Write your name using letters from the Greek alphabet.
- What is a colony? Why were so many new colonies established during the Archaic period?
- Using the map above, identify at least five modern countries that were colonised by the Greeks during the Archaic period.
Lesson 2 - The Olympic Games
All Greek states encouraged their citizens to take part in sport. There was a practical reason for this. Sport helped to keep young men fit and in good fighting condition for the wars which frequently took place between states. There were many sporting competitions, some of which attracted athletes from all over Greece. The most famous of these competitions was the Olympic Games, which began in 776 BC. These games were so-called because they were held at Olympia in honour of the God Zeus.
All Greek states encouraged their citizens to take part in sport. There was a practical reason for this. Sport helped to keep young men fit and in good fighting condition for the wars which frequently took place between states. There were many sporting competitions, some of which attracted athletes from all over Greece. The most famous of these competitions was the Olympic Games, which began in 776 BC. These games were so-called because they were held at Olympia in honour of the God Zeus.
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The games, which were held every four years, lasted for five days during the month of August. During this month, all wars between Greek states had to stop, so that up to 20,000 spectators and competitors (all of whom were male!) could travel safely to and from Olympia.
Many fine buildings and sports areas were constructed specially for the games. There was an open-air stadium which could hold up to 40,000 spectators to watch running events. There was a palaistra, where wrestlers and jumpers trained. There was a hippodrome holding horse races. Perhaps the most important building was the temple of Zeus. It contained a gold and ivory statue to the God which was over 13 metres tall!
On the opening day of the games, all the competitors gathered to make offerings to Zeus. A special relay race was held. But, unlike relay races of today, team members passed lighted torches instead of batons to each other. The final runner of the winning relay team would then use his torch to light a flame on a special altar dedicated to the God. Then, in an atmosphere of great excitement, the games would begin. The main events are described below.
Running: Running was the oldest event of the games. The track in the stadium was nearly 200 metres long and races varied from a sprint race of one length of the track to a long race of twenty four lengths. The athletes were naked, which was normal in most sporting competitions of ancient Greece. There was, however, one special race in which each runner had to wear armour and a helmet and had to carry a shield.
Many fine buildings and sports areas were constructed specially for the games. There was an open-air stadium which could hold up to 40,000 spectators to watch running events. There was a palaistra, where wrestlers and jumpers trained. There was a hippodrome holding horse races. Perhaps the most important building was the temple of Zeus. It contained a gold and ivory statue to the God which was over 13 metres tall!
On the opening day of the games, all the competitors gathered to make offerings to Zeus. A special relay race was held. But, unlike relay races of today, team members passed lighted torches instead of batons to each other. The final runner of the winning relay team would then use his torch to light a flame on a special altar dedicated to the God. Then, in an atmosphere of great excitement, the games would begin. The main events are described below.
Running: Running was the oldest event of the games. The track in the stadium was nearly 200 metres long and races varied from a sprint race of one length of the track to a long race of twenty four lengths. The athletes were naked, which was normal in most sporting competitions of ancient Greece. There was, however, one special race in which each runner had to wear armour and a helmet and had to carry a shield.
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Boxing: Boxing tended to be more bloody than boxing of today. In the first place, almost any blow of the hand to any part of the body was allowed. Secondly, a contest would go on until one of the boxers surrendered or was knocked completely unconscious. This could take several hours.
Wrestling: There were three different wrestling events. There was upright wrestling, in which the winner had to throw his opponent three times. There was ground wrestling, which went on until one man gave in. But by far the most dangerous (and most popular) type of wrestling was called pankration. In this event every tactic was allowed except for biting and eye-gouging. Competitors were sometimes killed during pankration events. (right) The pentathlon: One of the most difficult events of the Olympics was the pentathlon, which was designed to find the best all-round athlete. It consisted of five different events: running, jumping, javelin throwing, discus throwing and wrestling. Chariot racing: Chariot races were run over twelve laps round two posts in the ground. There were separate races for chariots pulled by two horses and for chariots pulled by four horses. Up to forty chariots could take part in a race and there were often nasty accidents, especially in the larger races. One such accident is described here by the poet Homer: |
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The competitor Eumelos was thrown from his chariot close to the wheel. The skin was ripped from his mouth and nose and elbow and his forehead was smashed open. His mighty voice was silenced. What a race!
The winners
On the fifth and final day of the Olympic Games, each winner was presented with his prize. It was a very simple prize - a crown made from the branches of a sacred olive tree which grew in Olympia. But when the winning athlete returned home, further benefits awaited him. He was treated as a hero. He might receive free meals for life, or permanent front-row seats at the theatre or even have a statue built in his honour. The Spartans honoured their Olympic champions by allowing them to fight in the front row of their army in battle!
The modern Olympics
The ancient Olympic games lasted for over one thousand years. They were abolished finally by the Romans (who had conquered Greece by this time) in 395AD. The games vanished for 1500 years.
On the fifth and final day of the Olympic Games, each winner was presented with his prize. It was a very simple prize - a crown made from the branches of a sacred olive tree which grew in Olympia. But when the winning athlete returned home, further benefits awaited him. He was treated as a hero. He might receive free meals for life, or permanent front-row seats at the theatre or even have a statue built in his honour. The Spartans honoured their Olympic champions by allowing them to fight in the front row of their army in battle!
The modern Olympics
The ancient Olympic games lasted for over one thousand years. They were abolished finally by the Romans (who had conquered Greece by this time) in 395AD. The games vanished for 1500 years.
Activities
Questions
Why were young people encouraged to take part in sports and in events like the Olympics?
Questions
Why were young people encouraged to take part in sports and in events like the Olympics?
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Using Word, create a table to compare and contrast the modern Olympics with the ancient version. Try to identify at least five significant similarities and five differences, at least one of which must be something you learnt from the film.
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Explain why the ancient Olympics came to end.
Research activity
Do some research about the modern Olympic games. When did they begin? Whose idea was it? Why were the games restarted?
Write a brief summary - 350-400 words of what the first modern Olympics were like.
Research activity
Do some research about the modern Olympic games. When did they begin? Whose idea was it? Why were the games restarted?
Write a brief summary - 350-400 words of what the first modern Olympics were like.
Lesson 3 - Athens - a Greek city state
In the Archaic Period, Greece was made up of many small, independent states. Each of these states was called a Polis or city state and it consisted of a city and the countryside which surrounded it. Greece is a generally mountainous country and ancient Greece suffered from frequent wars. The founders of the city states therefore often chose a hill around which to build their city. A hill could be fortified and defended easily if the city was being attacked. A hill was also a suitable place on which to build temples to the gods, because it reached to the skies where most of the gods were believed to live. The hill around which the city was built was called the Acropolis, which meant "high city". The Acropolis of Athens is high enough to give a fine view as far as the nearby Aegean Sea. If raiders were landing for an attack on the city, the Athenians could have plenty warning of their coming.
In the Archaic Period, Greece was made up of many small, independent states. Each of these states was called a Polis or city state and it consisted of a city and the countryside which surrounded it. Greece is a generally mountainous country and ancient Greece suffered from frequent wars. The founders of the city states therefore often chose a hill around which to build their city. A hill could be fortified and defended easily if the city was being attacked. A hill was also a suitable place on which to build temples to the gods, because it reached to the skies where most of the gods were believed to live. The hill around which the city was built was called the Acropolis, which meant "high city". The Acropolis of Athens is high enough to give a fine view as far as the nearby Aegean Sea. If raiders were landing for an attack on the city, the Athenians could have plenty warning of their coming.
The most important temple on the Acropolis was the Parthenon; this was seventy metres long and built of marble. The Parthenon was dedicated to the Goddess Athena, who was the patron Goddess of Athens (and after whom the city is named). The Acropolis contained several temples other than the Parthenon. It also contained a huge open- air statue of Athena. This statue was said to be 16 metres tall and could be seen glistening in the sunlight for a great distance out to sea.
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Social divisions in Athens
In all Greek states people were divided into different classes. This division was strict and it was virtually impossible for a person to change from one class to another.
Citizens were free adult men who were born of Athenian parents. They were the most privileged and powerful group in Athens, as they were the only people who could take part in the government of the Polis.
Metics were free men who had been born outside Athens or to parents who were not native Athenians. Most metics were traders or craftsmen and some of them were very rich. Like citizens, they were expected to pay taxes and to serve in the army if needed. But, unlike citizens, they could take no part in the running of the state. Nor could they ever become citizens.
Slaves were considered to be the personal property of free people. Some slaves had been captured in war. Most were born into slavery; being themselves the children of slaves. Slaves did all sorts of work for their masters. Some performed back-breaking labour in mines and quarries. Others worked on the land or in the homes of their owners. Some were even skilled doctors or teachers. A few were paid for their work, but all slaves had one thing in common: they had no legal rights at all and could be bought and sold like animals. It happened sometimes (though not often) that a slave owner would grant freedom to his slave. This made the slave a free person, though he or she could never become a citizen or a metic.
The social divisions here applied to men only. A woman had to take the social status of her husband or father and no woman was ever allowed to take part in government or other public life.
How was Athens ruled?
The Monarchy (up to c. 800BC) - In its earliest times, Athens was ruled by kings who lived in the easily defended Acropolis. One famous Athenian king was called Theseus. Many legends were told about Theseus.
The Aristocracy (c. 800-600BC) - After Theseus the power of the monarchy declined and Athens fell under the control of an oligarchy, which means rule by a small group of people. This small group consisted of the richest landowners, whose wealth gave them great power and influence. These powerful people were sometimes called aristocrats, which comes from the Greek word aristoi, meaning "the best people".
The Tyranny (c. 600-500BC) - As time went on, many other Athenians such as traders, and craftsmen and farmers demanded that they, too, should have a say in the running of the Polis. The aristocrats, however, wanted to keep all political power for themselves. Rioting and trouble broke out. To re-establish peace, the people sometimes allowed one powerful man to seize all power for himself. A leader who seized complete power by force was called a tyrant. Some tyrants were cruel and unpopular and were soon driven out. But others helped the poor, were popular and reigned
Democracy (from c.500BC) - In 508BC, an Athenian leader called Cleisthenes introduced a new system of Government to Athens. This government was called democracy, which meant” rule by the people". Today, democracy means a system of government in which every adult has a vote, this was not the case in ancient Greece.
In all Greek states people were divided into different classes. This division was strict and it was virtually impossible for a person to change from one class to another.
Citizens were free adult men who were born of Athenian parents. They were the most privileged and powerful group in Athens, as they were the only people who could take part in the government of the Polis.
Metics were free men who had been born outside Athens or to parents who were not native Athenians. Most metics were traders or craftsmen and some of them were very rich. Like citizens, they were expected to pay taxes and to serve in the army if needed. But, unlike citizens, they could take no part in the running of the state. Nor could they ever become citizens.
Slaves were considered to be the personal property of free people. Some slaves had been captured in war. Most were born into slavery; being themselves the children of slaves. Slaves did all sorts of work for their masters. Some performed back-breaking labour in mines and quarries. Others worked on the land or in the homes of their owners. Some were even skilled doctors or teachers. A few were paid for their work, but all slaves had one thing in common: they had no legal rights at all and could be bought and sold like animals. It happened sometimes (though not often) that a slave owner would grant freedom to his slave. This made the slave a free person, though he or she could never become a citizen or a metic.
The social divisions here applied to men only. A woman had to take the social status of her husband or father and no woman was ever allowed to take part in government or other public life.
How was Athens ruled?
The Monarchy (up to c. 800BC) - In its earliest times, Athens was ruled by kings who lived in the easily defended Acropolis. One famous Athenian king was called Theseus. Many legends were told about Theseus.
The Aristocracy (c. 800-600BC) - After Theseus the power of the monarchy declined and Athens fell under the control of an oligarchy, which means rule by a small group of people. This small group consisted of the richest landowners, whose wealth gave them great power and influence. These powerful people were sometimes called aristocrats, which comes from the Greek word aristoi, meaning "the best people".
The Tyranny (c. 600-500BC) - As time went on, many other Athenians such as traders, and craftsmen and farmers demanded that they, too, should have a say in the running of the Polis. The aristocrats, however, wanted to keep all political power for themselves. Rioting and trouble broke out. To re-establish peace, the people sometimes allowed one powerful man to seize all power for himself. A leader who seized complete power by force was called a tyrant. Some tyrants were cruel and unpopular and were soon driven out. But others helped the poor, were popular and reigned
Democracy (from c.500BC) - In 508BC, an Athenian leader called Cleisthenes introduced a new system of Government to Athens. This government was called democracy, which meant” rule by the people". Today, democracy means a system of government in which every adult has a vote, this was not the case in ancient Greece.
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Activity Write the questions and answers for a ‘Fling the Teacher’ style quiz entitled ‘The Society and Government of Ancient Athens’. The correct answers are: Acropolis, Polis, Parthenon, Citizens, Metics, Slaves, Monarchy, Aristocracy, Tyranny and Democracy. Remember for each correct answer you must include 3 feasible incorrect answers. Click here to see the games created by Moser Year 9 in 2019. Remember to enable Flash. |
Lesson 4 - Athens - The birthplace of democracy
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What this excellent introductory film about Athenian democracy and try to answers the questions below as you go. Good luck. |
The word "democracy" combines the elements demos (which means "people") and kratos (which means "force" or "power"). How many people made up the demos of Athens is hard to say. During the 4th century BC, there may well have been some 250,000–300,000 people in Attica. Citizen families may have amounted to 100,000 people and out of these some 30,000 will have been the adult male citizens entitled to vote in the assembly.
The Assembly: Greek democracy created at Athens was a direct, not a representative democracy: any adult male citizen of age could take part, and it was a duty to do so. Every citizen had the right to attend and speak at the Ekklesia or Assembly, which met about every ten days on a hill called the Pnyx. The assembly had to debate any proposals by the Council and then pass or change or reject these proposals by a show of hands. At least 6,000 had to attend a meeting of the assembly to create a quorum where laws could be passed.
If not enough citizens turned up, special police were sent out to round up more citizens and make them attend. The police normally rounded up such citizens using ropes which had been dipped in fresh red paint. Citizens had to pay a fine if they were found to have red paint on their cloaks. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position followed by a general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no. There were no political parties and likewise no government or opposition. In effect, the government was whatever speaker(s) the assembly agreed with on a particular day.
Voting was by simple majority. One unusual power given to the Assembly was the power of ostracism. This was a way of getting rid of unpopular or corrupt politicians. On one day in the year, a vote of ostracism could be held in the Assembly. Each citizen was given a fragment of pottery called an ostrakon. On this he could write the name of any politician he wished to see punished. If a politician's name appeared on more than 6000 pottery pieces, that politician was ostracised He had to leave Athens for a period of ten years.
The Council (boule): Every year, 500 citizens were chosen by lot to become Councillors. Allotment was random and shared the work of government throughout the whole citizen body, engaging them in the crucial democratic experience of, to use Aristotle's words, "ruling and being ruled in turn". The allotment of an individual was based on citizenship rather than merit or any form of personal popularity which could be bought. Allotment therefore was seen as a means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and it gave citizens a unique form of political equality as all had an equal chance of obtaining government office. They had responsibility for the day-to-day running of the state. They also drew up proposals for new laws; though these proposals had to be passed by the Assembly before they could become law.
In conclusion, to be an Athenian citizen meant to participate in the day to day running of the state. Those not interested in participating in politics were considered to be idiots. The modern word 'idiot', comes from the ancient Greek word ἰδιώτης (idiōtēs), meaning a private person, a person who is not actively interested in politics.
The Assembly: Greek democracy created at Athens was a direct, not a representative democracy: any adult male citizen of age could take part, and it was a duty to do so. Every citizen had the right to attend and speak at the Ekklesia or Assembly, which met about every ten days on a hill called the Pnyx. The assembly had to debate any proposals by the Council and then pass or change or reject these proposals by a show of hands. At least 6,000 had to attend a meeting of the assembly to create a quorum where laws could be passed.
If not enough citizens turned up, special police were sent out to round up more citizens and make them attend. The police normally rounded up such citizens using ropes which had been dipped in fresh red paint. Citizens had to pay a fine if they were found to have red paint on their cloaks. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position followed by a general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no. There were no political parties and likewise no government or opposition. In effect, the government was whatever speaker(s) the assembly agreed with on a particular day.
Voting was by simple majority. One unusual power given to the Assembly was the power of ostracism. This was a way of getting rid of unpopular or corrupt politicians. On one day in the year, a vote of ostracism could be held in the Assembly. Each citizen was given a fragment of pottery called an ostrakon. On this he could write the name of any politician he wished to see punished. If a politician's name appeared on more than 6000 pottery pieces, that politician was ostracised He had to leave Athens for a period of ten years.
The Council (boule): Every year, 500 citizens were chosen by lot to become Councillors. Allotment was random and shared the work of government throughout the whole citizen body, engaging them in the crucial democratic experience of, to use Aristotle's words, "ruling and being ruled in turn". The allotment of an individual was based on citizenship rather than merit or any form of personal popularity which could be bought. Allotment therefore was seen as a means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and it gave citizens a unique form of political equality as all had an equal chance of obtaining government office. They had responsibility for the day-to-day running of the state. They also drew up proposals for new laws; though these proposals had to be passed by the Assembly before they could become law.
In conclusion, to be an Athenian citizen meant to participate in the day to day running of the state. Those not interested in participating in politics were considered to be idiots. The modern word 'idiot', comes from the ancient Greek word ἰδιώτης (idiōtēs), meaning a private person, a person who is not actively interested in politics.
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To conclude, watch this rather more complex explanation of Athenian democracy. As a result of our recent lessons hopefully some or even most of what Dr Bettany Hughes says will make sense! |
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Activities
1. Explain the meaning of the following words in the context of classical Athens: democracy, assembly, quorum, ostracise, council, lot. These words are all in bold in the text and many were also explained in the films. 2. After first discussing in groups, fill in a table of similarities and differences between ancient Greek and modern democracy. |
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Lesson 5 - Sparta
In the last lesson you learned about Athens, which was a very famous city state of Ancient Greece. While Athens was known for its poets and learned people and fine buildings, Sparta was famous for something else. It was a land of warriors. Everything in Sparta was geared to producing a huge army of tough, disciplined soldiers. The Spartans succeeded in building the best army in ancient Greece. They also won most of the prizes at the Olympic Games, but they did not create much art or literature or many fine buildings. Social classes There were three separate social classes in Sparta: Only Spartan men were allowed to be citizens of Sparta and only they could take part in the Government of the state. All citizens had to serve in the Spartan army. |
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The second class were the free men. They often came from outside Sparta and so were called perioikoi 'neighbours'. They were mainly craftsmen, farmers or traders. They were allowed to serve in the army. But they could take no part in the running of Sparta.
The helots were descended from the people who had originally lived in Sparta, but who had been conquered by the Spartans. They were treated as slaves. They farmed the land for the Spartan masters, who usually treated them cruelly. Most people living in Sparta were helots. |
How Sparta was ruled
There were two kings who ruled together. These kings were members of special royal families. Their main task was to lead the army in war. The day-to-day running of the State was carried out by five officials called ephors. Each year, the ephors were elected by the Assembly.
The laws of Sparta were proposed by the Council. The council consisted of the two kings and twenty eight councillors. These councillors had to be at least sixty years old and were elected for life by the Assembly. The Assembly consisted of all citizens over the age of thirty. All laws proposed by the Council had to be passed by the Assembly. The Assembly members had an interesting way of voting. They simply screamed out "yes" or "no" to the proposed law. The loudest group won the vote.
There were two kings who ruled together. These kings were members of special royal families. Their main task was to lead the army in war. The day-to-day running of the State was carried out by five officials called ephors. Each year, the ephors were elected by the Assembly.
The laws of Sparta were proposed by the Council. The council consisted of the two kings and twenty eight councillors. These councillors had to be at least sixty years old and were elected for life by the Assembly. The Assembly consisted of all citizens over the age of thirty. All laws proposed by the Council had to be passed by the Assembly. The Assembly members had an interesting way of voting. They simply screamed out "yes" or "no" to the proposed law. The loudest group won the vote.
Activity
Make a copy of the table below. This is best done using Word. Read through the text above (and the previous lesson about Athens) and then add to the similarities and differences below. There will be more information to add later.
Make a copy of the table below. This is best done using Word. Read through the text above (and the previous lesson about Athens) and then add to the similarities and differences below. There will be more information to add later.
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Life in Sparta
There was very little luxury in ancient Sparta. The people lived in hard, uncomfortable conditions because they believed that this would help to keep them strong and able to defend themselves from possible attack. Every Spartan man had to be a soldier. Even kings were not allowed to possess wealth or luxuries; as such things might make them weak or selfish. Children (even when they obeyed orders) were left hungry and flogged. This was to toughen them up into hard, fearful warriors. Babies belonged not so much to their parents as to the State. When a child was born, state officers would come to examine it. If the child was healthy and perfectly formed it "passed" the examination and was allowed to live. If not, the baby would be taken outside and left to die. |
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School and Army
Young children were treated very harshly. They were not allowed to cry or to be afraid of the dark or to become "soft" in any way. They were often beaten in order to make them “disciplined". At the age of seven, boys were taken from their homes and sent to a kind-of state boarding-school. There they would spend thirteen years learning to be strong and totally disciplined warriors of Sparta. Conditions in such schools were terrible. When a young man reached twenty years, his harsh schooling finally came to an end. But now he had to join the army and go to live in an army barracks, where conditions were almost as hard as they had been at school.
Young children were treated very harshly. They were not allowed to cry or to be afraid of the dark or to become "soft" in any way. They were often beaten in order to make them “disciplined". At the age of seven, boys were taken from their homes and sent to a kind-of state boarding-school. There they would spend thirteen years learning to be strong and totally disciplined warriors of Sparta. Conditions in such schools were terrible. When a young man reached twenty years, his harsh schooling finally came to an end. But now he had to join the army and go to live in an army barracks, where conditions were almost as hard as they had been at school.
The Boy and the Fox (based on an ancient Spartan story)
The Spartan boy had been seeking some excitement when, near the house of local helot, he saw a beautiful young fox - no doubt the pet of some helot child. Remembering how in school he was encouraged to steal from helots, he thought only for a moment before scrambling over the fence. Creeping stealthily upon the animal, he pounced, grabbed the fox and was gone before anyone noticed. The fox's little heart beat with fear. But the boy's heart beat with delight. He could not wait to show his fox cub to his friends and to tell them of his successful adventure.
It was only when he neared his barracks that he heard some guards approach. Knowing that (while successful theft was praised) he must not be actually caught stealing, the boy stuffed the fox inside his tunic. The guards, seeing that the boy seemed to be acting suspiciously, began to question him. The boy lied coolly about his activities and (since boys had to be polite to older Spartan citizens) even held polite conversation with the guards long after they had stopped questioning him.
When, at last, the guards bade him good evening; the boy made his way to his barracks, staggered through the door and fell dead on the floor. His friends gathered around and soon discovered the cause of his death. While the boy was being questioned by the guards, the terrified fox had eaten right into his stomach and intestines. The boy, though in agony, had never cried out.
The leaders in the barracks agreed that the boy had been an ideal young Spartan.
At the age of thirty, a Spartan soldier might marry. But this did not mean he could live with his wife. He still had to live in barracks and had to be content with brief visits (many of them secret and at night) to visit his wife and children. Soldiers were given land, which they used to support their families. They did not farm the land themselves. Such work was considered beneath their dignity. All farm work was carried out by helots, who were little more than slaves. Only when a man reached the age of sixty could he finally return to live permanently with his family. But few Spartan soldiers reached such an age of "retirement". Most died before then of hardship or of battle wounds.
Girls were at least educated in Sparta (not every Greek city-state educated its females). Their schools, though not quite as harsh as those of boys, were strict and hard. The most important activity in school was physical education, which included running competitions and other athletic activities. Girls were trained to become physically fit, so that they would eventually become the strong mothers of Spartan warriors. Spartan girls knew little of the art of fashion or physical beauty. They were expected, for example, to strip almost naked when they took part in religious dances or processions. This was to ensure that they would not develop the habit of showing off fine clothes. Spartan women were in some ways freer than their husbands At least they could live at home, rather than in an army barracks. They were also freer than some other Greek women in that they could own property. But, like the men they were expected to be tough and completely loyal to the State. A Spartan mother could kill a son who was considered to be a coward. A mother would tell her son, before he went to battle: 'Return with your shield or upon it’.
Girls were at least educated in Sparta (not every Greek city-state educated its females). Their schools, though not quite as harsh as those of boys, were strict and hard. The most important activity in school was physical education, which included running competitions and other athletic activities. Girls were trained to become physically fit, so that they would eventually become the strong mothers of Spartan warriors. Spartan girls knew little of the art of fashion or physical beauty. They were expected, for example, to strip almost naked when they took part in religious dances or processions. This was to ensure that they would not develop the habit of showing off fine clothes. Spartan women were in some ways freer than their husbands At least they could live at home, rather than in an army barracks. They were also freer than some other Greek women in that they could own property. But, like the men they were expected to be tough and completely loyal to the State. A Spartan mother could kill a son who was considered to be a coward. A mother would tell her son, before he went to battle: 'Return with your shield or upon it’.
Activities
- Why was there very little luxury in Sparta?
- What did the Spartan mother mean when she said ‘return with your shield or upon it’?
- Read the story of the Boy and the Fox, why, in your opinion, did the leaders of the barracks consider the boy to be a good Spartan?
- Was there anything in Spartan culture and society that we still value today?
Lesson 6 - Greek Gods
The ancient Greeks believed that the weather, the crops, the sea - in fact everything in life - was controlled by several gods and goddesses (deities). These deities were always to be respected and feared, though they were not always perfectly behaved. Some of them could sometimes be jealous, violent, or unfaithful. Many of the deities of the ancient Greeks were thought to live in the clouds above Mount Olympus. So they were referred to as the Olympian gods.
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Zeus (Jupiter) - King of the gods and ruler of Mount Olympus; god of the sky and thunder. Symbols include the thunderbolt, eagle, oak tree, sceptre and scales.
Hera (Juno) Queen of the gods and the goddess of marriage and family. Symbols include the peacock, pomegranate, crown, lion and cow. Wife and sister of Zeus. Poseidon (Neptune) Lord of the seas, earthquakes and horses. Symbols include the horse, bull, dolphin and trident. Brother of Zeus and Hades. Dionysus (Bacchus) - God of wine, celebrations and ecstasy. Patron god of the art of theatre. Symbols include the grapevine, ivy, cup, tiger, leopard, dolphin and goat. Apollo (Apollo) God of light, music, poetry, prophecy and archery. Symbols include the sun, lyre, bow and arrow, raven, dolphin, wolf, swan and mouse Artemis (Diana) Virgin goddess of the hunt, virginity, archery and all animals. Symbols include deer, hound, she-bear, snake, cypress tree and bow and arrow. Hermes (Mercury) Messenger of the Gods; god of commerce and thieves. Symbols include the caduceus (staff with two snakes), winged sandals, stork and tortoise Athena (Minerva) Virgin goddess of wisdom, handicrafts, defence and strategic warfare. Symbols include the owl and the olive tree. Ares (Mars) God of war, violence and bloodshed. Symbols include the boar, serpent, dog, vulture, spear and shield. Mars, gave us the word "martial." Aphrodite (Venus) Goddess of love, beauty, and desire. Symbols include the dove, bird, apple, bee, swan, myrtle and rose. Her name gave us the word "aphrodisiac." Hephaestus (Vulcan) Master blacksmith and craftsman of the gods; god of fire and the forge. Symbols include the fire, anvil, axe and quail. Demeter (Ceres) Goddess of fertility, agriculture, nature, and the seasons. Symbols include the poppy, wheat, torch, and pig. Latin name gave us the word cereal." |
Praying to the gods
Worship was very important to the Ancient Greeks and most families had a little altar at home. Here they could pray each day sometimes pouring water or wine on the altar as an offering. Special prayers would be made to specific deities regarding particular activities. Before going on a sea journey, for example, one would pray to Poseidon. If one wanted a girlfriend or boyfriend, Aphrodite was the Goddess to pray to. On special occasions, people would visit the temple of a deity to pray and to make a sacrifice.
Worship was very important to the Ancient Greeks and most families had a little altar at home. Here they could pray each day sometimes pouring water or wine on the altar as an offering. Special prayers would be made to specific deities regarding particular activities. Before going on a sea journey, for example, one would pray to Poseidon. If one wanted a girlfriend or boyfriend, Aphrodite was the Goddess to pray to. On special occasions, people would visit the temple of a deity to pray and to make a sacrifice.
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The Greeks believed that there were several ways of finding out the future. Oracles were people who predicted the future by speaking directly to a deity (though the word "oracle" can also be used to describe the sacred place where the priestess spoke or the message which she gave). Perhaps the most famous oracle of all was the Pythia or the Oracle of Delphi, a woman through whom the god Apollo spoke. Even kings looked for advice from the Oracle of Delphi. Soothsayers were people with mysterious powers to predict the future. One such soothsayer was Cassandra of Troy. Apollo had placed a curse on Cassandra so that while she would always foretell the future correctly, nobody would ever believe her. Her most important prediction, she warned that the wooden horse of Troy was a trap and that it should not be brought into the city. Everybody laughed at her. You know the result!
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Omens were signs of things to come. There were many possible omens and special priests were trained to interpret them. The condition of the liver of a sacrificed animal could be a sign of good or evil. So could the formation of a flock of flying birds. Thunder or lightning could sometimes also be powerful omens.
What happened after death?
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The ancient Greeks believed that after death, the soul of the dead person would begin the journey to the Underworld, the underground kingdom ruled over by Hades. Hermes would be sent to help out in this task. He would call the spirit to follow him. They would fly through caves deep underground and eventually they would come to the banks of a dark and frightening river. This was the Styx - the boundary between the living world and the Underworld. Hermes would now have to leave.
The soul, terrified at the side of the Styx, would soon sense something moving towards her/him across the water. It would be Charon, the ghostly ferryman who would carry the soul in his boat to the other side. But Charon had to be paid. For this purpose, the relatives of the newly dead would always place a coin under the tongue of the dead person. |
At the other side, the soul would see a terrifying sight: a savage three-headed dog named Kerberos. His job was to guard the Kingdom of the Dead against any live person entering or against any ghost leaving. The soul would have to wander along a strange, dark path until it came to a cross-road. There would sit Minos (remember him?) and two others who were to judge the soul. This was the most important moment of all. Depending on how good or bad the dead person had been in life, the soul would be sent to everlasting happiness or everlasting torture.
- Tartarus was the place where the souls of the wicked were sent. Imagine being burned and flogged and beaten for ever and ever.
- The Elysian Fields were only for the souls of the very good. They were places of everlasting happiness and light.
- The Asphodel Fields were for the spirits of people who were neither very good nor very bad. It was a peaceful but rather boring place to be.
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Activity
1. Make a copy of the picture of the Olympian gods. Read the descriptions and add the correct name to each image. Remember, four of the gods are not Olympian. 2. Explain why people made sacrifices to the gods. 3. What is the difference between oracles, soothsayers and omens? 4. Using the text and the film to help you, write a guide for someone in ancient Greece about what to expect after you died. Your guide should be between 250 and 300 words long and must be in your own words. Extension Want to know more about Greek and Roman gods? Watch the crash course episode opposite |
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Lesson 7 - Greek Cultural Legacy
The civilization of Ancient Greece has been immensely influential on all aspects of philosophy, science, and the arts. Along with the culture of the Roman Empire, Greek culture is the foundation of Western culture in general.
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The word ‘Philosophy’ comes from the Greek φιλοσοφία [philosophia], which literally means ‘love of wisdom’. When we begin to study philosophy today, we usually begin by studying the philosophy of ancient Greece.
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The word ‘Philosophy’ comes from the Greek φιλοσοφία [philosophia], which literally means ‘love of wisdom’. When we begin to study philosophy today, we usually begin by studying the philosophy of ancient Greece.
Socrates (469-399 B.C.) used to teach by asking his students questions and showing up weaknesses in their thinking. He always encouraged his students to think for themselves and not always to accept what other people said. ‘As for me’, he wrote, ‘all I know is that I know nothing’. They accused him of corrupting the minds of young people and sentenced him to death.
Plato (428-348 B.C.) was Socrates’ student. He taught in a place called the Academy. Plato's most famous book - called The Republic -described how an ideal state might be best governed. The Republic is usually one of the first books a philosophy student studies today. For Plato the ideal society is that in which only philosophers are fit to rule.
Aristotle (384– 322 BC) was a student of Plato and taught in a school called the Lyceum. He was also tutor to Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theatre, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. He was the most influential ancient philosopher, many of his ideas went unchallenged for thousands of years.
Plato (428-348 B.C.) was Socrates’ student. He taught in a place called the Academy. Plato's most famous book - called The Republic -described how an ideal state might be best governed. The Republic is usually one of the first books a philosophy student studies today. For Plato the ideal society is that in which only philosophers are fit to rule.
Aristotle (384– 322 BC) was a student of Plato and taught in a school called the Lyceum. He was also tutor to Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theatre, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. He was the most influential ancient philosopher, many of his ideas went unchallenged for thousands of years.
Literature and Drama
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Many consider the western literary tradition to have begun with the epic poems of Homer, The Iliad and The Odyssey. A Greek playwright named Aeschylus (c. 525-456 BC) changed Western literature forever when he introduced the ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwriting. In doing so, he essentially invented "drama": Other great Greek playwrights were Sophocles (c. 496-406 B.C.), Euripides. (c. 480-406 B.C.) and Aristophanes (c. 448-380 B.C.)
Greek tragedies and comedies were always performed in outdoor theatres. (See Epidauros theatre left) The orchestra (literally, ‘dancing space’) was normally circular and would be where the chorus would perform. In the centre of the orchestra there was often a thymele, or altar. The theatron (literally, "viewing-place") is where the spectators sat. The theatron was usually part of hillside overlooking the orchestra, and often wrapped around a large portion of the orchestra. |
Art and Architecture
The arts of ancient Greece have exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
The arts of ancient Greece have exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
In the Classical period for the first time we know the names of individual sculptors. Phidias (c. 480-430 BC) oversaw the design and building of the Parthenon. The greatest works of the Classical period, the Statue of Zeus at Olympia and the Statue of Athena are lost, although smaller copies still exist. Their size and magnificence prompted emperors to seize them in the Byzantine period, and both were removed to Constantinople, where they were later destroyed in fire.
Science and Technology
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Ancient Greece mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of mathematics, including the basic rules of geometry. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras (570-490 BC see left), Euclid (c. 300 BC), and Archimedes (c. 287 c. 212 BC), are still used in mathematical teaching today. The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates (460- 370 BC) was a doctor considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the ‘father of medicine’ and all modern doctors swear the Hippocratic Oath which governs their behaviour as doctors. |
Activity
It is almost time for the end of unit test. As part of your preparations, choose three individuals from classical Greece who have had a significant impact on this history of Western culture. Each individual should be taken from a different area of culture, i.e. philosophy, literature and drama, art and architecture or science and technology. For each of these individuals write a brief explanation of why they important and/or what they achieved. Make sure to learn what you have written!
End of Unit 2 Test
There will be two sections to the test.
Part 1 will be short answer questions that test your factual knowledge on all seven lessons.
Part 2 will require longer answers. How was the ancient Olympics both similar and different to today's Olympic Games? How was Athenian society organised? How did Athenian democracy work? How was Athenian democracy different to today's democracy? How was Spartan society organised? Why was Sparta so good at war? How did ancient Greeks hope to find out about the future? What did they believe happened after death? How has classical Greek culture been such an influence of Western civilisation?
Go to test
It is almost time for the end of unit test. As part of your preparations, choose three individuals from classical Greece who have had a significant impact on this history of Western culture. Each individual should be taken from a different area of culture, i.e. philosophy, literature and drama, art and architecture or science and technology. For each of these individuals write a brief explanation of why they important and/or what they achieved. Make sure to learn what you have written!
End of Unit 2 Test
There will be two sections to the test.
Part 1 will be short answer questions that test your factual knowledge on all seven lessons.
Part 2 will require longer answers. How was the ancient Olympics both similar and different to today's Olympic Games? How was Athenian society organised? How did Athenian democracy work? How was Athenian democracy different to today's democracy? How was Spartan society organised? Why was Sparta so good at war? How did ancient Greeks hope to find out about the future? What did they believe happened after death? How has classical Greek culture been such an influence of Western civilisation?
Go to test
End of Unit 2 - film making assessment - Alexander the Great
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In the north east of ancient Greece was a state named Macedonia (see map below). For long it was a poor and weak state but this began to change when Philip II became king of Macedonia in 359 BC. Philip was a determined ruler who built up his army and made Macedonia stronger. He conquered several nearby states and made them part of Macedonia. The remaining Greek states, alarmed by the growth of Macedonia, formed the Hellenic League to try to stop Philip, but they were too late.
By 338 BC, Philip had defeated the Hellenic League and become the hegemon (leader) of all Greece. Philip decided that the best way to unite all Greeks under his rule was to make war on an enemy whom they all hated. That enemy was Persia and Philip planned to draw together a great army of Greeks to attack the Persian Empire.
Philip never carried out these plans. One day in 337BC, he was stabbed to death by one of his own bodyguards. Nobody knows who, if anyone, planned the assassination of Philip, but the person to benefit most from it was certainly his son Alexander. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander received an education under the tutorship of famed philosopher Aristotle. On the same day as his father died, Alexander was made King of Macedonia and hegemon of all the Greek states. The first thing Alexander did was to make sure that all Greeks obeyed him as their king.
An example was made of Thebes. When the city of Thebes was captured by Alexander's forces, its buildings were flattened. More than five thousand of its people were slaughtered and the rest sold as slaves. After that, there were no more Greek rebellions against Alexander. As soon as Alexander had secured his position as undisputed leader of all Greece, he set about his life's greatest ambition. This was to conquer the mighty Persian Empire which itself had in the past tried to conquer Greece.
In 334 BC, Alexander led an army of 50,000 men into Asia Minor and invaded the Persian Empire. Against overwhelming odds, he led his army to victories across the Persian territories of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt without suffering a single defeat. His greatest victory was at the Battle of Gaugamela, in what is now northern Iraq, in 331 BC. The young king of Macedonia, leader of the Greeks, overlord of Asia Minor and pharaoh of Egypt became 'great king' of Persia at the age of 25.
Philip never carried out these plans. One day in 337BC, he was stabbed to death by one of his own bodyguards. Nobody knows who, if anyone, planned the assassination of Philip, but the person to benefit most from it was certainly his son Alexander. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander received an education under the tutorship of famed philosopher Aristotle. On the same day as his father died, Alexander was made King of Macedonia and hegemon of all the Greek states. The first thing Alexander did was to make sure that all Greeks obeyed him as their king.
- Those people he thought might be rivals for the throne were soon murdered.
- Greek states, such as Athens and Thebes, which rebelled against him, were defeated by rapid and brutal military campaigns.
An example was made of Thebes. When the city of Thebes was captured by Alexander's forces, its buildings were flattened. More than five thousand of its people were slaughtered and the rest sold as slaves. After that, there were no more Greek rebellions against Alexander. As soon as Alexander had secured his position as undisputed leader of all Greece, he set about his life's greatest ambition. This was to conquer the mighty Persian Empire which itself had in the past tried to conquer Greece.
In 334 BC, Alexander led an army of 50,000 men into Asia Minor and invaded the Persian Empire. Against overwhelming odds, he led his army to victories across the Persian territories of Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt without suffering a single defeat. His greatest victory was at the Battle of Gaugamela, in what is now northern Iraq, in 331 BC. The young king of Macedonia, leader of the Greeks, overlord of Asia Minor and pharaoh of Egypt became 'great king' of Persia at the age of 25.
Over the next eight years, as king, commander, politician, scholar and explorer, Alexander led his army a further 11,000 miles, founding over 70 cities (including Alexandria in Egypt - see map below) and creating an empire that stretched across three continents and covered around two million square miles. The entire area from Greece in the west, north to the Danube, south into Egypt and as far to the east as the Indian Punjab, was linked together in a vast international network of trade and commerce. This was united by a common Greek language and culture, while the king himself adopted foreign customs in order to rule his millions of ethnically diverse subjects. On either 10 or 11 June 323 BC, Alexander died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II, in Babylon at the age of 32. The exact cause of his death is unknown, although it seems to have been a result of natural causes, perhaps typhoid or malaria.
After Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his generals, who fought among themselves for territory. The great empire of Alexander became steadily weaker. Many years later, Rome began to emerge as a growing military power. The Roman Empire gradually and slowly began to conquer Greek territory. The last part of Alexander's empire to be conquered was Egypt. It became Roman territory when Queen Cleopatra was defeated by the Romans in 31 BC. Greek language and culture lived on in many of the territories conquered by Alexander. Many aspects of Greek art, architecture and learning were copied by the conquering Romans. Through the Roman Empire, it was passed on to influence greatly the cultural development of Europe.
Activity
Produce a short film (2-3 minutes) of the life of Alexander the Great. It must be a balanced account that includes negative and positive points about him.
After Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his generals, who fought among themselves for territory. The great empire of Alexander became steadily weaker. Many years later, Rome began to emerge as a growing military power. The Roman Empire gradually and slowly began to conquer Greek territory. The last part of Alexander's empire to be conquered was Egypt. It became Roman territory when Queen Cleopatra was defeated by the Romans in 31 BC. Greek language and culture lived on in many of the territories conquered by Alexander. Many aspects of Greek art, architecture and learning were copied by the conquering Romans. Through the Roman Empire, it was passed on to influence greatly the cultural development of Europe.
Activity
Produce a short film (2-3 minutes) of the life of Alexander the Great. It must be a balanced account that includes negative and positive points about him.