Year 9
Unit 4 - The Early Middle Ages
When did the Middle Ages begin and end?
It is impossible to put a precise date on the beginning and end of the Middle Ages. The successful attack on Rome by the Visigoths in 400AD and the deposing of the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustus in 476AD are popular starting points. There is even less agreement on the date of the end of the Middle Ages. The Turkish capture of Constantinople or the end of the Anglo-French Hundred Years' War (right, both 1453), the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg (around 1455), the fall of Muslim Spain or Christopher Columbus's voyage to America both 1492, the Protestant Reformation starting 1517 are all possible end-dates. |
Using the template timeline of the middle ages to help you, research and add three additional events and explain their significance. You can download the document here.
Consider using three of the following events: Tarik-Ibn-Ziyad begins the Muslim conquest of Spain. Charlemagne is crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor. The Eastern Church and the papacy in Rome split. William of Normandy conquers England The Third Crusade pits Richard I against Saladin Cantons Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden oath of the Confederation The Hundred Years’ War begins. The Black Death hits Europe. |
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The life of Jesus
Most of what we know about the life of Jesus comes from the Bible. The Bible says that Jesus was born in Palestine during the rule of the emperor Augustus. Jesus was a Jew. As a boy, he studied Judaism, the religion of the Jews. When he was about 30, Jesus began to preach to Jews across Palestine. He chose 12 followers, called apostles, to help him. Jesus preached in simple language that everyone could understand. The Bible says that Jesus also performed miracles, such as healing the sick. He began to attract large crowds wherever he went. For years, the Jews had been waiting for the Messiah (a leader chosen by God). Many Jews believed the Messiah would free them from Roman rule. Some Jews believed that Jesus was the Messiah. Jesus won many followers among the Jews. But he also made enemies. Jesus sometimes spoke out against Jewish leaders. He did not always follow Jewish religious laws. That angered some Jews. About A.D. 33, Jesus was brought before Jewish leaders for trial. When Jesus claimed to be the Son of God, he was found guilty of blasphemy. (That is showing disrespect for God and Jewish teachings.) Jewish leaders turned Jesus over to the Romans for punishment. He was crucified, or nailed to a wooden cross and left to die. |
We have no images of Jesus from his lifetime. This picture from the 4th century is one of the earliest to show Jesus with a beard.
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Rome Becomes a Christian Empire
Some Roman emperors persecuted, or mistreated, Christians. For example in A.D. 64, the emperor Nero executed many Christians. But as the Roman Empire declined, more people became Christians. Constantine I became emperor of Rome in A.D. 324. Before he became emperor, Constantine was a general in the Roman army. A legend says that before an important battle, Constantine saw a cross in the sky. The cross was a Christian symbol. Under the cross were the words “By this sign you shall conquer!” Constantine believed the cross was a sign to him from the Christian God. After Constantine won the battle, he became the first Christian emperor of Rome. He ended the persecution of Christians. Later, the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of Rome. All other religions were outlawed. |
Peter Paul Rubens - The Emblem of Christ Appearing to Constantine / Constantine's conversion
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Activity 2
The map opposite shows the spread of Christianity between 325 and 600 A.D. a) Explain, using your own words, why Christianity survived during this time. b) Suggests some examples of evidence that historians might use in order to prove that Christianity spread in the ways described in the map. |
As Christianity grew, many small churches sprang up across the empire. Christians needed some way to hold their churches together. By about A.D. 300, Christians had developed an organisation, or government, for their churches. Each local church, called a parish, was run by a priest. The priest led members of the parish in worship. The priest also took care of parish business. Members of the parish called deacons helped the priest. A group of parishes made up a diocese. The leader of a diocese was called a bishop. The bishop appointed a priest to each parish. He worked with the priests to spread church teachings. The bishop also collected money for the poor and sick of the diocese. Women were not leaders in church government. They were not allowed to become priests or bishops.
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The Church Divides
As you know the Roman Empire divided into a western empire and an eastern empire. In time, differences arose between Christians in the two empires. Christians disagreed about some church rules and ceremonies. Most Christians in the Western Empire spoke Latin. They accepted the pope of Rome as their leader. But Christians in the Eastern Empire spoke Greek. They looked to the archbishop of Constantinople as their leader. The differences led to a split in the Christian church in A.D. 1054. The Latin speaking churches formed the Roman Catholic church. The Greek-speaking churches formed the Eastern Orthodox church. |
The importance of monasteries
One of the reasons why Christianity spread so effectively during the early Middle Ages was because of important role of monasteries and the monks who lived in them. As you can see in the map opposite, Christianity spread to major settlements through the building of the churches we saw last time, but Europeans lived in the countryside and this is where monasteries became important. But what were these monasteries that were full of monks? Monks Being a monk was not something Christians invented. A tradition had long existed of men deciding to live alone so as better to worship their god without distractions. The word monasticism is from the ancient Greek and it means to live alone. |
The earliest monks believed it did them good to suffer. They cut out ‘luxuries’ like soft beds and comfortable clothes. They fasted (went without food) for long periods and spent night after night praying instead of sleeping. Some went to extremes, whipping themselves or rolling naked among thorns. Why do you think they did this?
On of the earlier Christian monks St Simeon Stylites worshipped God from a platform on top of a tall pillar. There was no room to lie down and no protection from the blazing sun. To get food and drink Simeon lowered a basket on the end of a rope. Yet he stayed up there for thirty-three years. St Daniel, one of his followers, later beat his ‘record’ by three months. |
Before long, religious men in Rome heard about the monk in the hills and went to visit him. Some asked if they could stay. So Benedict organised a community of monks who all agreed to give up worldly pleasures and pray to God.
After some years Benedict left Subiaco with a small band of his closest followers. They travelled south, to the top of a hill overlooking the village of Monte Cassino, and there, about the year 525, Benedict founded his first and most famous monastery. He lived at Monte Cassino until his death in 543. Some of the time he spent writing a Rule for monks to live by. This ‘Benedictine Rule’, which is in fact a large number of rules, is still practised today by monks in many countries. (opposite, Monte Cassino today) |
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The Benedictine ‘Rule’
St Benedict’s idea of a monastery was a place where ordinary men would want to come and lead a Christian life, praying and working together. He ordered that the monks’ clothes, although plain, should be warm and comfortable. They were to have a good eight hours of sleep, and two daily meals of simple but nourishing food. Nevertheless it was far from an easy life in a Benedictine monastery. The abbot, elected by the monks, or brothers, to rule the community, had to be obeyed at all times, without the slightest question or delay. Through regular obedience, a monk would always be humble and never get a high opinion of himself. |
No personal belongings were allowed. Even a monk’s clothes were the property of the monastery. A monk could not receive a letter from his parents without the abbot’s agreement. On top of this there were strict rules about silence. The monks were rarely allowed to speak to each other. And, of course, all relationships with women were forbidden. Only a truly devoted Christian would be able to keep such difficult rules. So Benedict ordered that each newcomer, or novice, would have a year ‘on probation’ before having to make his solemn promises of obedience to the Rule. But once he had promised, he was expected to belong to the monastery all his life. He could not step outside the walls without the abbot’s permission. Idleness is the enemy of the soul. So every day, except Sunday, about seven hours were spent doing ordinary work such as farming, cooking, cleaning, caring for the sick, writing and copying books, or teaching boys and younger monks.
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In the early Middle Ages, boys were sometimes given to monasteries at a young age, as a gesture of a family's faith. Trainee monks were called novices. They would help the other monks, sing in choir and study, being taught to read and write by older monks. They would be supervised by the Master of the Novices for at least a year. The master had to check that the novices were suitable for monastic life. Taking their vows would mean that they pledged themselves to a life of poverty, obedience and humility, including chastity and a commitment to monastic life. They could not leave the monastery without the permission of the Abbott. When they took their vows, monks would be given a tonsure - their hair would be cut and shaved leaving only a circle, to represent Christ's crown of thorns.
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An extract from St Benedict’s Rule.
We are about to start a school for the service of God in which we hope nothing harsh or burdensome will be demanded. . . . Prompt obedience is required of all monks. They live not as they themselves would choose, but . . . agree to be ruled by the abbot. . . . If it be possible let them all sleep in a common dormitory. . . .
The younger brothers are not to have their beds next to each other, but amongst those of the elders. When they rise for the service of God let them gently encourage one another, because of the excuses made by those who are drowsy. . . . No one, without the abbot’s permission, shall give, receive or keep as his own anything whatever: neither book nor writing-tablet nor pen. . . . Monks shall practise silence at all times, but especially at night-time.
So, on coming out from Compline (the last service of the day), no one shall be allowed to speak at all. . . . Monks must not grumble about the colour or rough material of their clothes. ... A mattress, blanket, coverlet and pillow are enough for bedding. The beds shall be frequently searched by the abbot to guard against the vice of hoarding. ... A monastery ought to be so arranged that everything necessary - that is, water, a mill, a garden, a bakery - may be made use of ... so that there shall be no need for the monks to wander about outside. For this is not at all good for their souls.
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As we have seen, with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, only the Eastern Roman remained strong and prosperous. Under the leadership of one of the greatest Roman emperors Justinian, Rome once again set out to reconquer the former Roman lands of the Mediterranean that had fallen into the hands of the 'barbarians'. To begin with we need to understand a little bit more about the unusual background of Justinian. Unlike Pope Gregory in the west, Justinian was not born into a life of wealth and privilege.
Activity 1
Watch the video opposite. In your own words, explain briefly how Justinian became emperor. |
Belisarius next attacked the East-Goths in Italy - Justinian’s main goal. Approaching by way of Sicily, he soon captured Rome (537) and Ravenna (540). The war seemed to be won. But the enemy suddenly recovered and fighting dragged on until 553, when the Goths were finally defeated. Large parts of Italy suffered great damage. Rome, which was captured and re-captured several times, became almost a heap of wreckage. Finally, Justinian’s forces moved against the West-Goths in Spain. But after hard fighting they captured only the south-eastern corner of the kingdom. Much of the old Western Empire was still in barbarian hands when Justinian died.
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Nowadays Justinian is remembered more as a reformer than as a conqueror. He reformed the tax system so that the empire had a regular and reliable supply of funds and most famously he oversaw a change in the legal system. Over the centuries there had been so many changes in the law that magistrates often did not know what was the correct judgment. |
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Activity 2
Explain why Justinian is considered to be one of the most important Roman emperors. Identify at least three important successes that Justinian was responsible for. Extension If you have time, watch this Crash Course episode on the Fall of Rome. It provides a broad overview of events in both east and west that you should understand now. You might even understand some of John Green's jokes. |
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History is written by the victors
At the beginning of this unit I wrote that: 'For people of the Renaissance, the Middle Ages had been the 'Dark Ages' of barbarism, superstition and war, a time when humanity hadn't progressed but had actually gone backwards.' Nothing illustrates how wrong the people of the Renaissance were, than a quick look at the achievement of Islam in the early 'Middle Ages'. Whilst it is true that in much of Western Europe the collapse of the Roman Empire produced conditions in which the great achievements of Roman 'civilisation' were 'lost', in other parts of the Mediterranean and southern Europe an astonishingly rich culture of science and art was being established. |
Muhammad
Seventy years after Justinian’s death Byzantium was attacked from an unexpected direction. Thousands of armed nomadic Bedouins from Arabia advanced upon its fertile lands. In the seventh century the Bedouins reached much further afield than usual. This was because they were inspired by the religious teachings of a new prophet, his name was Muhammad, and he was born about 570 in the dusty trading town of Mecca. Mecca was busy with camel caravans. It was also the centre of Arab religion which like ancient Greece and Rome was polytheistic. In its cube-shaped place of worship, called the Kaaba, stood statues of several hundred gods - spirits of the stars, rocks, winds and oases.
Muhammad was troubled by this worshipping of gods and idols. Like a monk he began to retreat to a quiet mountain cave, to think, fast and pray for long periods. He said that it was there that the Angel Gabriel appeared to him in a vision and revealed that there was only one god, Allah, and Muhammad was to be His Prophet. Allah was the same God as the God of the Jews and the Christians. But Muhammad said that the Angel told him he was to be the last in a long line of prophets, including Abraham, Moses and Jesus Christ. |
The Quran (Koran)
The revelations that came to Muhammad were memorised and written down by his followers. They were put in order under his instructions, and compiled in their final form - in a book called the Quran - less than ten years after the Prophet’s death. The text of the Quran is the same now as it was then. Nothing has been changed. The Quran is the Holy Book of Muslims. It contains instructions on how a true Muslim should live and worship God. There are five basic ‘Pillars’ (rules) of Islam, which Muslims still follow: |
The spread of Islam
United by faith as never before, the Arabs swept northwards conquering the lands of the Byzantine Empire, spreading Islam as they went. Muhammad had promised rewards in paradise for those who showed faith and courage: 'The sword is the key of heaven and hell; all who draw it in the cause of the faith will be rewarded .... If they fall in battle . . . they will be transported to paradise, there to revel in eternal pleasure.' |
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Merchants and scholars
By breaking down frontiers, Muslims encouraged trade across three continents. In the crowded bazaars (markets) of cities such as Baghdad the rich could buy all kinds of luxury goods. There were jewels, silks, perfumes and spices from China and the Far East; decorated leather and glassware from North Africa and Egypt; furs from central Asia, and magnificent Persian carpets, tapestries and brocades. Arab traders even brought gold, ivory and ostrich feathers from tropical Africa, making the first real contacts between African people and the rest of the world. Helped by the common language of Arabic, ideas travelled as easily as goods throughout Islam. The Arabs were quick to learn from the peoples they had conquered. |
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Islamic Golden Age
Great writings from far and wide, especially those of ancient Greece, were translated and stored in vast libraries. The Renaissance was largely made possible because Arab scholars had saved and translated many of the classical works by authors such as Plato and Aristotle. Through trading with the Far East, Arabs learned about paper-making, the windmill, spinning wheel and magnetic compass. These inventions later reached Europe, through Spain and Sicily. So did the nine ‘Arabic’ numerals that we still use today (they originally came from India). The zero, which allows numerals to be arranged in columns representing tens, hundreds and so on, possibly came first from the Chinese. However it was a ninth century Muslim, Al-Khawarizmi, who first described it in a book that has come down to us. He was also one of the inventors of algebra (al-jabr in Arabic). |
About the year 800, Norsemen began to settle on the treeless islands to the north and west of Scotland: the Shetlands, Orkneys, Faroes and Hebrides. They brought their families and lived by farming, fishing and seal-hunting. These islands were ideal bases for attacks on Ireland.
By 820, according to an Irish chronicle, ‘. . . there was no harbour or landing-place . . . without fleets of Vikings’. From Ireland, Norse farmers settled in the Isle of Man and parts of north-western England. Some married Celtic women and were converted to Christianity. |
In 911 the Frankish king, Charles ‘the Simple’, realised he could not get rid of the invaders and decided to come to terms with them. He invited a Viking chieftain named Rollo to become the lawful ruler of the lands he controlled at the mouth of the River Seine. In return Rollo had to promise to protect Charles against further raids. Rollo and his followers were rough, seafaring men. But once they settled down they quickly became more civilised. They mixed with the Franks, who converted them to Christianity and taught them to speak French. The ‘Duchy of the Northmen’ became known as Normandy. It grew bigger and more powerful. A later Norman duke became King of England in 1066, the last time Britain was successfully invaded. (See the Norman invasion ships from the Bayeux Tapestry - right)
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According to a saga written in the twelfth century, a man called Bjarni lost his way while sailing to Greenland in 986. Three times he sighted a strange coast, where trees grew in large numbers. But because it was not like reports he had heard of Greenland he went on, without landing, until he found his destination. If this story is true Bjarni was the first European to see the American continent, 500 years before the famous voyage of Columbus. The saga tells us that a few years later (about AD 1000) Leif Ericsson, son of Eric the Red, went to explore this new country. Using Bjarni’s information to set his course, Leif came to a land covered with dense forest.
This seemed an ideal place for Norse settlement. According to the saga, several expeditions followed, and landings were made along hundreds of miles of the North American coast. But as far as we know all attempts to establish settlements failed, because of attacks by people the Norsemen called Skraelings. These were probably native Americans. |
Viking ships were a great improvement on earlier designs. Each had a proper keel, or ‘backbone’, made of a single length of oak. This was strong enough to stand the strain of a mast and a large square sail.
The steer-board, or rudder, was shaped like the blade of an oar and fixed on the right-hand side of the hull, near the stern. This side of a ship is still called the starboard (from steer-board). They also used a clinker build technique which is a method of boat building where the edges of hull planks overlap each other. This made the ship strong but also flexible to cope with the ocean waves. |
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The seaworthiness of Viking ships was shown as early as 1893, when an exact copy of the Gokstad ship was sailed across the Atlantic, from Norway to Newfoundland. Under sail, the ship reached speeds of ten or eleven knots, and the crossing took only 28 days. The ship came through several storms undamaged, mainly because its springy sides bent with the waves.
The History Channel programme opposite is a very good example of experimental archaeology. In the programme the archaeologists explain some of the advantages of reconstructing the past that cannot be achieved by only reading books and studying artefacts. |
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Activity 2
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In the film, which is a part of the NOVA series Secrets of Lost Empires, a team of timber framers and other specialists design, build, and fire a pair of trebuchets, a devastating engine of war popular in the Middle Ages.
The Treb Challenge. Excellent online game introduces the engineering and physics of trebuchet building. Crush the Castle game which tests your skill in attacking castles and in the advanced version also building them. |
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