Year 9
Unit 4 - The Early Middle Ages
Lesson 1 - What are the Middle Ages?
The Middle Ages of European history (adjective ‘medieval’) are a period in history which lasted for roughly one thousand years, commonly dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century to the beginning of the Early Modern Period in the 16th century. As accomplished linguists, you might be interested to know that the plural form of the term, Middle Ages, is used in English and Dutch while other European languages use the singular form (French le moyen âge, German das Mittelalter, Spanish edad media).
The Middle Ages form the middle period in a division of European history between the classical period of Greece and Rome that we have studied and the Early Modern period associated with the Renaissance. During the Renaissance (meaning rebirth) Europeans rediscovered and built upon the achievements of classical civilisation. For people of the Renaissance, the Middle Ages had been the 'Dark Ages' of barbarism, superstition and war, a time when humanity hadn't progressed but had actually gone backwards. This isn't really true and history is never that simple, but the term Middle Ages has stuck so it is important you understand what it means.
The Middle Ages are themselves often subdivided into three.
The Middle Ages form the middle period in a division of European history between the classical period of Greece and Rome that we have studied and the Early Modern period associated with the Renaissance. During the Renaissance (meaning rebirth) Europeans rediscovered and built upon the achievements of classical civilisation. For people of the Renaissance, the Middle Ages had been the 'Dark Ages' of barbarism, superstition and war, a time when humanity hadn't progressed but had actually gone backwards. This isn't really true and history is never that simple, but the term Middle Ages has stuck so it is important you understand what it means.
The Middle Ages are themselves often subdivided into three.
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The early or low medieval period was from the 5th to the 9th century. Sometimes called the Dark Ages, this period is associated with the consequences of the break up of the Roman Empire and regular invasions into Europe by non-Christian ‘Barbarians’. This is the subject of this unit of study.
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The middle period (the High Middle Ages) follows, and this is a time of the feudal system, castle and cathedral building, new methods in warfare and the growth of towns. The last span (the late Middle Ages) is a later period of the growing power of kings and queens, increasing importance of trade, and weakening of the feudal system after the 14th century plague. This is what you will be studying next year
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When did the Middle Ages begin and end?
It is impossible to put a precise date on the beginning and end of the Middle Ages. The successful attack on Rome by the Visigoths in 400AD and the deposing of the last Roman emperor Romulus Augustus in 476AD are popular starting points. There is even less agreement on the date of the end of the Middle Ages. The Turkish capture of Constantinople or the end of the Anglo-French Hundred Years' War (right, both 1453), the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg (around 1455), the fall of Muslim Spain or Christopher Columbus's voyage to America both 1492, the Protestant Reformation starting 1517 are all possible end-dates. |
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What makes an event in the past historically significant?
The list of dates and events above are all historically significant. But what makes something ‘significant’. I find it useful to think of the following:
Profundity– how deeply people’s lives have been affected?
Quantity– how many lives have been affected?
Durability– for how long have people’s lives been affected?
Relevance– is something still significant to our present lives?
The list of dates and events above are all historically significant. But what makes something ‘significant’. I find it useful to think of the following:
Profundity– how deeply people’s lives have been affected?
Quantity– how many lives have been affected?
Durability– for how long have people’s lives been affected?
Relevance– is something still significant to our present lives?
Activity
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Using the template timeline of the middle ages to help you, research and add three additional events and explain their significance. You can download the document here.
Consider using three of the following events: Tarik-Ibn-Ziyad begins the Muslim conquest of Spain. Charlemagne is crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor. The Eastern Church and the papacy in Rome split. William of Normandy conquers England The Third Crusade pits Richard I against Saladin Cantons Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden oath of the Confederation The Hundred Years’ War begins. The Black Death hits Europe. |
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Lesson 2 - Why did Europe become Christian?
During the rule of the emperor Tiberius, a new religion began in the Roman Empire. It was called Christianity. It was based on the teachings of a man named Jesus. Christianity began in Palestine. In time, it became the religion of the entire Roman Empire. Later, Christianity spread from Europe to the Americas and other lands. Today, it is the world’s largest religion, with followers around the world.
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The life of Jesus
Most of what we know about the life of Jesus comes from the Bible. The Bible says that Jesus was born in Palestine during the rule of the emperor Augustus. Jesus was a Jew. As a boy, he studied Judaism, the religion of the Jews. When he was about 30, Jesus began to preach to Jews across Palestine. He chose 12 followers, called apostles, to help him. Jesus preached in simple language that everyone could understand. The Bible says that Jesus also performed miracles, such as healing the sick. He began to attract large crowds wherever he went. For years, the Jews had been waiting for the Messiah (a leader chosen by God). Many Jews believed the Messiah would free them from Roman rule. Some Jews believed that Jesus was the Messiah. Jesus won many followers among the Jews. But he also made enemies. Jesus sometimes spoke out against Jewish leaders. He did not always follow Jewish religious laws. That angered some Jews. About A.D. 33, Jesus was brought before Jewish leaders for trial. When Jesus claimed to be the Son of God, he was found guilty of blasphemy. (That is showing disrespect for God and Jewish teachings.) Jewish leaders turned Jesus over to the Romans for punishment. He was crucified, or nailed to a wooden cross and left to die. |
We have no images of Jesus from his lifetime. This picture from the 4th century is one of the earliest to show Jesus with a beard.
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After Jesus died, the Bible says that a miracle took place. Christian believe that on the third day after his death, Jesus rose from his tomb. They commemorate this event at Easter when he met again with his apostles. Then he joined God in heaven. To the apostles, the miracle was proof that Jesus was the Messiah. The Greek word for Messiah is “Christos.” Those who worshiped Jesus as the Messiah and followed his teachings became known as Christians.
Activity 1
a) Explain the meaning of the following words: apostle, miracle, messiah, blasphemy, crucified and Christos.
b) Why do think it is difficult to be historically certain about the events in the life of Jesus? Try to give a number of reasons, each of which you explain.
a) Explain the meaning of the following words: apostle, miracle, messiah, blasphemy, crucified and Christos.
b) Why do think it is difficult to be historically certain about the events in the life of Jesus? Try to give a number of reasons, each of which you explain.
Why did Christianity survive?
The attractive message and teachings of Jesus
The teachings of Jesus grew out of Judaism. Like all Jews, Jesus believed in one God. Jesus described God as a loving Father. He taught that God loves each person as a parent loves a child. God wants people to live good lives. But when they do wrong, God is willing to forgive them. Jesus gave people hope that there was life after death. He promised that people who believed in him as the Son of God would have ‘ ‘everlasting life.’ ’ They would live forever with God in heaven.
The attractive message and teachings of Jesus
The teachings of Jesus grew out of Judaism. Like all Jews, Jesus believed in one God. Jesus described God as a loving Father. He taught that God loves each person as a parent loves a child. God wants people to live good lives. But when they do wrong, God is willing to forgive them. Jesus gave people hope that there was life after death. He promised that people who believed in him as the Son of God would have ‘ ‘everlasting life.’ ’ They would live forever with God in heaven.
Role of Paul and other missionaries
After Jesus died, missionaries carried his teachings across the Roman Empire. (Missionaries are people who travel to other lands to tell others about a religion.) One missionary was especially important. His name was Paul. Most early missionaries preached only among the Jews. But Paul wanted to spread Christianity to all people and because he was a Roman citizen he was able to travel from city to city in the empire. He taught Jews and people who were not Jews about Jesus. Many who heard him speak converted, or changed their religion, to Christianity.
After Jesus died, missionaries carried his teachings across the Roman Empire. (Missionaries are people who travel to other lands to tell others about a religion.) One missionary was especially important. His name was Paul. Most early missionaries preached only among the Jews. But Paul wanted to spread Christianity to all people and because he was a Roman citizen he was able to travel from city to city in the empire. He taught Jews and people who were not Jews about Jesus. Many who heard him speak converted, or changed their religion, to Christianity.
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Rome Becomes a Christian Empire
Some Roman emperors persecuted, or mistreated, Christians. For example in A.D. 64, the emperor Nero executed many Christians. But as the Roman Empire declined, more people became Christians. Constantine I became emperor of Rome in A.D. 324. Before he became emperor, Constantine was a general in the Roman army. A legend says that before an important battle, Constantine saw a cross in the sky. The cross was a Christian symbol. Under the cross were the words “By this sign you shall conquer!” Constantine believed the cross was a sign to him from the Christian God. After Constantine won the battle, he became the first Christian emperor of Rome. He ended the persecution of Christians. Later, the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of Rome. All other religions were outlawed. |
Peter Paul Rubens - The Emblem of Christ Appearing to Constantine / Constantine's conversion
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Activity 2
The map opposite shows the spread of Christianity between 325 and 600 A.D. a) Explain, using your own words, why Christianity survived during this time. b) Suggests some examples of evidence that historians might use in order to prove that Christianity spread in the ways described in the map. |
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The Christian Church
Early Christians lived together in small communities, or groups, called churches. The oldest members of the community often acted as church leaders. Because Christianity was outlawed at first, Christians had to meet in secret. The used the secret symbol of the fish to spread express their secret faith in Christianity. Christians began using the Greek word for "fish" as an anagram/acronym for "Jesus Christ God's Son, Savior." They often met in each other’s houses. Church members took turns leading church services, or worship.
Early Christians lived together in small communities, or groups, called churches. The oldest members of the community often acted as church leaders. Because Christianity was outlawed at first, Christians had to meet in secret. The used the secret symbol of the fish to spread express their secret faith in Christianity. Christians began using the Greek word for "fish" as an anagram/acronym for "Jesus Christ God's Son, Savior." They often met in each other’s houses. Church members took turns leading church services, or worship.
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As Christianity grew, many small churches sprang up across the empire. Christians needed some way to hold their churches together. By about A.D. 300, Christians had developed an organisation, or government, for their churches. Each local church, called a parish, was run by a priest. The priest led members of the parish in worship. The priest also took care of parish business. Members of the parish called deacons helped the priest. A group of parishes made up a diocese. The leader of a diocese was called a bishop. The bishop appointed a priest to each parish. He worked with the priests to spread church teachings. The bishop also collected money for the poor and sick of the diocese. Women were not leaders in church government. They were not allowed to become priests or bishops.
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The Pope
The bishops of certain large cities, such as Rome and Jerusalem, grew to be very powerful. They were known as archbishops, or head bishops. Archbishops governed their own churches and the churches in surrounding cities and towns. Because Rome was the capital of the Roman Empire, many Christians saw Rome as the centre of Christianity. In time, the archbishop of Rome became the most important church official. Christians saw him as the “Father of the Church.” By A.D. 600, he was known as the Pope. (“Pope” comes from a Greek word for “father”)
The bishops of certain large cities, such as Rome and Jerusalem, grew to be very powerful. They were known as archbishops, or head bishops. Archbishops governed their own churches and the churches in surrounding cities and towns. Because Rome was the capital of the Roman Empire, many Christians saw Rome as the centre of Christianity. In time, the archbishop of Rome became the most important church official. Christians saw him as the “Father of the Church.” By A.D. 600, he was known as the Pope. (“Pope” comes from a Greek word for “father”)
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The Church Divides
As you know the Roman Empire divided into a western empire and an eastern empire. In time, differences arose between Christians in the two empires. Christians disagreed about some church rules and ceremonies. Most Christians in the Western Empire spoke Latin. They accepted the pope of Rome as their leader. But Christians in the Eastern Empire spoke Greek. They looked to the archbishop of Constantinople as their leader. The differences led to a split in the Christian church in A.D. 1054. The Latin speaking churches formed the Roman Catholic church. The Greek-speaking churches formed the Eastern Orthodox church. |
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Activities.
a) Design a diagram to explain the relationship between parish, priest, diocese, bishop, archbishop and pope.
b) What were the consequences of the split in the Church in 1054. Make sure to include a map in your answer.
a) Design a diagram to explain the relationship between parish, priest, diocese, bishop, archbishop and pope.
b) What were the consequences of the split in the Church in 1054. Make sure to include a map in your answer.
Lesson 3 - Why did Christianity spread in the early Middle Ages?
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The importance of monasteries
One of the reasons why Christianity spread so effectively during the early Middle Ages was because of important role of monasteries and the monks who lived in them. As you can see in the map opposite, Christianity spread to major settlements through the building of the churches we saw last time, but Europeans lived in the countryside and this is where monasteries became important. But what were these monasteries that were full of monks? Monks Being a monk was not something Christians invented. A tradition had long existed of men deciding to live alone so as better to worship their god without distractions. The word monasticism is from the ancient Greek and it means to live alone. |
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The earliest monks believed it did them good to suffer. They cut out ‘luxuries’ like soft beds and comfortable clothes. They fasted (went without food) for long periods and spent night after night praying instead of sleeping. Some went to extremes, whipping themselves or rolling naked among thorns. Why do you think they did this?
On of the earlier Christian monks St Simeon Stylites worshipped God from a platform on top of a tall pillar. There was no room to lie down and no protection from the blazing sun. To get food and drink Simeon lowered a basket on the end of a rope. Yet he stayed up there for thirty-three years. St Daniel, one of his followers, later beat his ‘record’ by three months. |
St Benedict
Benedict was a deeply religious young man. He was shocked by the lawless and sinful behaviour of many Romans. So he gave up his studies, left the city and travelled eastwards to the hills. There, on the mountain of Subiaco, he found a cave and lived alone as a hermit. To Benedict it seemed the best way of getting closer to God and living a truly Christian life.
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Before long, religious men in Rome heard about the monk in the hills and went to visit him. Some asked if they could stay. So Benedict organised a community of monks who all agreed to give up worldly pleasures and pray to God.
After some years Benedict left Subiaco with a small band of his closest followers. They travelled south, to the top of a hill overlooking the village of Monte Cassino, and there, about the year 525, Benedict founded his first and most famous monastery. He lived at Monte Cassino until his death in 543. Some of the time he spent writing a Rule for monks to live by. This ‘Benedictine Rule’, which is in fact a large number of rules, is still practised today by monks in many countries. (opposite, Monte Cassino today) |
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The Benedictine ‘Rule’
St Benedict’s idea of a monastery was a place where ordinary men would want to come and lead a Christian life, praying and working together. He ordered that the monks’ clothes, although plain, should be warm and comfortable. They were to have a good eight hours of sleep, and two daily meals of simple but nourishing food. Nevertheless it was far from an easy life in a Benedictine monastery. The abbot, elected by the monks, or brothers, to rule the community, had to be obeyed at all times, without the slightest question or delay. Through regular obedience, a monk would always be humble and never get a high opinion of himself. |
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No personal belongings were allowed. Even a monk’s clothes were the property of the monastery. A monk could not receive a letter from his parents without the abbot’s agreement. On top of this there were strict rules about silence. The monks were rarely allowed to speak to each other. And, of course, all relationships with women were forbidden. Only a truly devoted Christian would be able to keep such difficult rules. So Benedict ordered that each newcomer, or novice, would have a year ‘on probation’ before having to make his solemn promises of obedience to the Rule. But once he had promised, he was expected to belong to the monastery all his life. He could not step outside the walls without the abbot’s permission. Idleness is the enemy of the soul. So every day, except Sunday, about seven hours were spent doing ordinary work such as farming, cooking, cleaning, caring for the sick, writing and copying books, or teaching boys and younger monks.
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In the early Middle Ages, boys were sometimes given to monasteries at a young age, as a gesture of a family's faith. Trainee monks were called novices. They would help the other monks, sing in choir and study, being taught to read and write by older monks. They would be supervised by the Master of the Novices for at least a year. The master had to check that the novices were suitable for monastic life. Taking their vows would mean that they pledged themselves to a life of poverty, obedience and humility, including chastity and a commitment to monastic life. They could not leave the monastery without the permission of the Abbott. When they took their vows, monks would be given a tonsure - their hair would be cut and shaved leaving only a circle, to represent Christ's crown of thorns.
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An extract from St Benedict’s Rule.
We are about to start a school for the service of God in which we hope nothing harsh or burdensome will be demanded. . . . Prompt obedience is required of all monks. They live not as they themselves would choose, but . . . agree to be ruled by the abbot. . . . If it be possible let them all sleep in a common dormitory. . . .
The younger brothers are not to have their beds next to each other, but amongst those of the elders. When they rise for the service of God let them gently encourage one another, because of the excuses made by those who are drowsy. . . . No one, without the abbot’s permission, shall give, receive or keep as his own anything whatever: neither book nor writing-tablet nor pen. . . . Monks shall practise silence at all times, but especially at night-time.
So, on coming out from Compline (the last service of the day), no one shall be allowed to speak at all. . . . Monks must not grumble about the colour or rough material of their clothes. ... A mattress, blanket, coverlet and pillow are enough for bedding. The beds shall be frequently searched by the abbot to guard against the vice of hoarding. ... A monastery ought to be so arranged that everything necessary - that is, water, a mill, a garden, a bakery - may be made use of ... so that there shall be no need for the monks to wander about outside. For this is not at all good for their souls.
Image - St Benedict hands his Rule to St Maurus (British Library)
The importance of Gregory
In Benedict’s lifetime the Rule was only followed in monasteries he set up himself. It later became famous mainly through the efforts of a pope - Gregory I, called ‘the Great’. Like Benedict, Gregory was born into a wealthy family, about the year 540. His father had a large house in Rome and could afford to give his son a good education. Gregory soon showed outstanding ability. He was only in his early thirties when he was chosen Prefect of Rome, the highest position in the government of the city. After only a year as Prefect, Gregory decided to give up his position and devote his life to serving God. His father had just died, leaving a large fortune. Gregory gave some to charity and used the rest to set up six monasteries in Sicily. His own house in Rome was turned into a seventh, and there Gregory became a monk.
The most important part of Gregory’s life began in 590, a year of floods and plague, when he was chosen to be Pope. By then he was in poor health. Yet right up to his death, in 604, he worked tirelessly to strengthen the organisation of the Church and to unite Christians in many lands. Gregory worked to spread the faith among 'heathens' (those who were not Christians). The barbarian king of Spain was converted by missionaries sent by Gregory, and most of the King’s subjects soon became Christians. Gregory also sent a band of monks to convert the English. The vast amount of work he got through can be seen from the hundreds of letters he wrote, which are still preserved. They were addressed not only to Church leaders and missionaries, but also to kings, queens and tribal chiefs. In a time of invasion, plague and famine, the organisation of the Roman Church might easily have collapsed, just like the Roman Empire, had it not been for Gregory’s work. He is the patron saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers.
In Benedict’s lifetime the Rule was only followed in monasteries he set up himself. It later became famous mainly through the efforts of a pope - Gregory I, called ‘the Great’. Like Benedict, Gregory was born into a wealthy family, about the year 540. His father had a large house in Rome and could afford to give his son a good education. Gregory soon showed outstanding ability. He was only in his early thirties when he was chosen Prefect of Rome, the highest position in the government of the city. After only a year as Prefect, Gregory decided to give up his position and devote his life to serving God. His father had just died, leaving a large fortune. Gregory gave some to charity and used the rest to set up six monasteries in Sicily. His own house in Rome was turned into a seventh, and there Gregory became a monk.
The most important part of Gregory’s life began in 590, a year of floods and plague, when he was chosen to be Pope. By then he was in poor health. Yet right up to his death, in 604, he worked tirelessly to strengthen the organisation of the Church and to unite Christians in many lands. Gregory worked to spread the faith among 'heathens' (those who were not Christians). The barbarian king of Spain was converted by missionaries sent by Gregory, and most of the King’s subjects soon became Christians. Gregory also sent a band of monks to convert the English. The vast amount of work he got through can be seen from the hundreds of letters he wrote, which are still preserved. They were addressed not only to Church leaders and missionaries, but also to kings, queens and tribal chiefs. In a time of invasion, plague and famine, the organisation of the Roman Church might easily have collapsed, just like the Roman Empire, had it not been for Gregory’s work. He is the patron saint of musicians, singers, students, and teachers.
Activities
1.Carefully read the extract from St Benedict's rule.
(a) He says that nothing 'harsh or burdensome will be demanded'. Which of his rules would you find the hardest to live by, and why?
(b) How are these rules linked to the monks’ vows of (i) poverty and (ii) obedience?
(c) What is 'the vice of hoarding'? What do you think monks might have been tempted to hoard?
(d) Why was it important for the monastery to be self-sufficient - to have water, a bakery, a mill etc.?
2. Show your understanding by defining the following words: monasticism, abbot, novice and tonsure.
3. Why was Pope Gregory important to the spread of Christianity?
1.Carefully read the extract from St Benedict's rule.
(a) He says that nothing 'harsh or burdensome will be demanded'. Which of his rules would you find the hardest to live by, and why?
(b) How are these rules linked to the monks’ vows of (i) poverty and (ii) obedience?
(c) What is 'the vice of hoarding'? What do you think monks might have been tempted to hoard?
(d) Why was it important for the monastery to be self-sufficient - to have water, a bakery, a mill etc.?
2. Show your understanding by defining the following words: monasticism, abbot, novice and tonsure.
3. Why was Pope Gregory important to the spread of Christianity?
Lesson 4 - Why was Emperor Justinian so important?
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As we have seen, with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, only the Eastern Roman remained strong and prosperous. Under the leadership of one of the greatest Roman emperors Justinian, Rome once again set out to reconquer the former Roman lands of the Mediterranean that had fallen into the hands of the 'barbarians'. To begin with we need to understand a little bit more about the unusual background of Justinian. Unlike Pope Gregory in the west, Justinian was not born into a life of wealth and privilege.
Activity 1
Watch the video opposite. In your own words, explain briefly how Justinian became emperor. |
The importance of conquest
As a boy, Justinian had learned about the past glories of Rome, in the days when its emperors ruled all the Mediterranean world.
His greatest ambition was to recover the western lands lost to the barbarians. He once wrote: ‘We have taken hope that the Lord will grant us the rest of the Empire, which the Romans of old . . . lost through idleness.’
Justinian began his ‘war of reconquest’ by attacking the Vandals in the the weakest of the barbarian kingdoms. In 533 his finest general, Belisarius, set sail with 15,000 troops and landed not far from Carthage. Belisarius’s foot-soldiers were fierce fighters, mostly recruited from tribes along the borders of the Empire. His cavalrymen, in their chain-mail coats and iron helmets, were the best in the world. The Vandal army was overrun and, within six months, a large part of North Africa was again a ‘Roman’ province.
His greatest ambition was to recover the western lands lost to the barbarians. He once wrote: ‘We have taken hope that the Lord will grant us the rest of the Empire, which the Romans of old . . . lost through idleness.’
Justinian began his ‘war of reconquest’ by attacking the Vandals in the the weakest of the barbarian kingdoms. In 533 his finest general, Belisarius, set sail with 15,000 troops and landed not far from Carthage. Belisarius’s foot-soldiers were fierce fighters, mostly recruited from tribes along the borders of the Empire. His cavalrymen, in their chain-mail coats and iron helmets, were the best in the world. The Vandal army was overrun and, within six months, a large part of North Africa was again a ‘Roman’ province.
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Belisarius next attacked the East-Goths in Italy - Justinian’s main goal. Approaching by way of Sicily, he soon captured Rome (537) and Ravenna (540). The war seemed to be won. But the enemy suddenly recovered and fighting dragged on until 553, when the Goths were finally defeated. Large parts of Italy suffered great damage. Rome, which was captured and re-captured several times, became almost a heap of wreckage. Finally, Justinian’s forces moved against the West-Goths in Spain. But after hard fighting they captured only the south-eastern corner of the kingdom. Much of the old Western Empire was still in barbarian hands when Justinian died.
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Justinian the reformer
Although impressive, Justinian military conquests did not fulfil his dream of rebuilding the old Roman Empire. Justinian’s wars were very costly, in both money and lives. And all the time the Emperor needed extra forces to protect the heart of his empire from the powerful Persians and the peoples beyond the Danube frontier. In the end, his conquests were shortlived. Only a few years after his death most of Italy was overrun by the Lombards. Within a century the foothold in Spain was lost and North Africa was conquered by Arab tribesmen.
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Nowadays Justinian is remembered more as a reformer than as a conqueror. He reformed the tax system so that the empire had a regular and reliable supply of funds and most famously he oversaw a change in the legal system. Over the centuries there had been so many changes in the law that magistrates often did not know what was the correct judgment. |
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So Justinian ordered a team of experts to sort out all that was best in the old Roman laws. The result was the great four-part Corpus Juris Civilis (Body of Civil Law) which is still in use today. This vast work fills over 2,000 closely printed pages in a modern edition. It has influenced the laws of many present-day countries in Europe and the Americas.
Justinian is also famous for his buildings - especially the magnificent church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) in Constantinople, which still stands and is now a mosque. It took 10,000 men five years to build. The ceiling was overlaid with pure gold, and sunlight flooding through the huge domed roof lit up richly coloured marble floors and walls. A writer of the time said of Hagia Sophia: ‘Whenever one goes there to pray . . . one’s heart is lifted up to God and finds itself in heaven.’
Justinian is also famous for his buildings - especially the magnificent church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) in Constantinople, which still stands and is now a mosque. It took 10,000 men five years to build. The ceiling was overlaid with pure gold, and sunlight flooding through the huge domed roof lit up richly coloured marble floors and walls. A writer of the time said of Hagia Sophia: ‘Whenever one goes there to pray . . . one’s heart is lifted up to God and finds itself in heaven.’
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Emperors ruled at Constantinople for 900 years after Justinian. But none of them tried to re-conquer the West. They were kept busy defending the empire they already had. As contacts with western Europe grew less the old Roman customs disappeared. Before long even the Christianity of the Eastern Empire was different from that of the Roman Catholic Church. The Empire became known as Byzantium - the name of the ancient Greek city which once stood on the site of Constantinople. Certainly its way of life was Greek rather than Roman. In fact Justinian was the last emperor to speak Latin.
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Activity 2
Explain why Justinian is considered to be one of the most important Roman emperors. Identify at least three important successes that Justinian was responsible for. Extension If you have time, watch this Crash Course episode on the Fall of Rome. It provides a broad overview of events in both east and west that you should understand now. You might even understand some of John Green's jokes. |
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Lesson 5 - Muhammed and Islam
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History is written by the victors
At the beginning of this unit I wrote that: 'For people of the Renaissance, the Middle Ages had been the 'Dark Ages' of barbarism, superstition and war, a time when humanity hadn't progressed but had actually gone backwards.' Nothing illustrates how wrong the people of the Renaissance were, than a quick look at the achievement of Islam in the early 'Middle Ages'. Whilst it is true that in much of Western Europe the collapse of the Roman Empire produced conditions in which the great achievements of Roman 'civilisation' were 'lost', in other parts of the Mediterranean and southern Europe an astonishingly rich culture of science and art was being established. |
But because Islam was a rival to Christianity and because wars or 'crusades' were fought between Christian Europeans and Muslim Arabs, Western history, history written by white Europeans has tended to ignore the achievements of Arabic civilisation (and other non-white, non-Christian cultures - see Black Lives Matter 2020). In this lesson we are going to redress the balance. To begin watch the film '1001 Inventions and the Library of Secrets', which begins by explaining how the 'middle ages' are often perceived, even in school. 1001 Inventions is an award-winning international science and cultural heritage organisation that raises awareness of the golden age of Arabic science.
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Muhammad
Seventy years after Justinian’s death Byzantium was attacked from an unexpected direction. Thousands of armed nomadic Bedouins from Arabia advanced upon its fertile lands. In the seventh century the Bedouins reached much further afield than usual. This was because they were inspired by the religious teachings of a new prophet, his name was Muhammad, and he was born about 570 in the dusty trading town of Mecca. Mecca was busy with camel caravans. It was also the centre of Arab religion which like ancient Greece and Rome was polytheistic. In its cube-shaped place of worship, called the Kaaba, stood statues of several hundred gods - spirits of the stars, rocks, winds and oases.
Muhammad was troubled by this worshipping of gods and idols. Like a monk he began to retreat to a quiet mountain cave, to think, fast and pray for long periods. He said that it was there that the Angel Gabriel appeared to him in a vision and revealed that there was only one god, Allah, and Muhammad was to be His Prophet. Allah was the same God as the God of the Jews and the Christians. But Muhammad said that the Angel told him he was to be the last in a long line of prophets, including Abraham, Moses and Jesus Christ. |
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Muhammad started preaching, but his attacks on the Arabs’ false gods angered the rulers of Mecca who threatened to silence him. Fortunately the Prophet’s fame had spread to Medina, 250 miles (400 km) away. There many Jews and Arabs were attracted by his teachings. So in 622 Muhammad and a few faithful followers moved to Medina. This event, known as the Hegira (breaking of old ties), proved such a turning point that it became Year 1 in the Muslim calendar - just as Christ’s birth marks the start of the Christian calendar.
The Meccans attacked Medina several times, and fierce battles were fought, during which Muhammad himself to be an able military commander. When the Prophet finally captured Mecca in 630 he destroyed the idols in the Kaaba, but not the building itself. He pardoned many of his enemies and as a result many of them became followers of his faith. When Muhammad died, two years later, most Arabs had accepted the new religion of Islam - meaning ‘obedience to the will of God’. Those who ‘obey’ are called Muslims.
The Meccans attacked Medina several times, and fierce battles were fought, during which Muhammad himself to be an able military commander. When the Prophet finally captured Mecca in 630 he destroyed the idols in the Kaaba, but not the building itself. He pardoned many of his enemies and as a result many of them became followers of his faith. When Muhammad died, two years later, most Arabs had accepted the new religion of Islam - meaning ‘obedience to the will of God’. Those who ‘obey’ are called Muslims.
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The Quran (Koran)
The revelations that came to Muhammad were memorised and written down by his followers. They were put in order under his instructions, and compiled in their final form - in a book called the Quran - less than ten years after the Prophet’s death. The text of the Quran is the same now as it was then. Nothing has been changed. The Quran is the Holy Book of Muslims. It contains instructions on how a true Muslim should live and worship God. There are five basic ‘Pillars’ (rules) of Islam, which Muslims still follow: |
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1. The confession of faith: ‘There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His Prophet.’
2. Prayer: five times a day Muslims pray, facing the Kaaba (House of God) in Mecca.
3. Fasting: as an act of self-discipline all believers fast from dawn to sunset during Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim
4. Charity: a certain part of a Muslim's income is give to the poor and homeless, and other Islamic causes.
5. Pilgrimage: if possible, all Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca once during their lifetime.
2. Prayer: five times a day Muslims pray, facing the Kaaba (House of God) in Mecca.
3. Fasting: as an act of self-discipline all believers fast from dawn to sunset during Ramadan, the ninth month of the Muslim
4. Charity: a certain part of a Muslim's income is give to the poor and homeless, and other Islamic causes.
5. Pilgrimage: if possible, all Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Mecca once during their lifetime.
The Quran gave guidance to Muslims in their everyday lives. For instance, pork was declared unclean and forbidden; gambling and alcoholic drinks were also forbidden. Instructions were given for the treatment of slaves and the care of wives. Muhammad promised to the faithful a Paradise where they might expect to dwell at ease in a ‘cool garden of spreading shade, and water gushing, and fruit in plenty’. On the other hand, the ‘evil and unbelieving’ would go to hell, a place of ‘scorching wind and scalding water and shadow of black smoke’.
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The spread of Islam
United by faith as never before, the Arabs swept northwards conquering the lands of the Byzantine Empire, spreading Islam as they went. Muhammad had promised rewards in paradise for those who showed faith and courage: 'The sword is the key of heaven and hell; all who draw it in the cause of the faith will be rewarded .... If they fall in battle . . . they will be transported to paradise, there to revel in eternal pleasure.' |
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Only six years after Muhammad’s death (638) the Arabs had conquered Syria and thousands were making new homes there. Then, turning east, the swift Arab horsemen overran the Persian Empire with astonishing ease (637-44). Before long Muslims were crossing the frontiers of India and China. Meanwhile, Egypt was conquered (642) and the Arabs began moving westwards along the North African coast. By 711 Muslim forces were crossing the Straits of Gibraltar into Spain.
Not until 717 were the armies of Islam seriously checked. Advancing through Asia Minor (now Turkey) they attacked Constantinople by land and sea. But after a bitter struggle the Byzantines forced them back and recovered most of Asia Minor. But Islamic influence over the lands stretching from the Atlantic to the Himalayas remained. The Jewish and Christian populations had to pay taxes, although they were free to practise their religions. Most of the conquered peoples, however, became Muslims. Apart from Spain, these lands are still largely Muslim today.
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Merchants and scholars
By breaking down frontiers, Muslims encouraged trade across three continents. In the crowded bazaars (markets) of cities such as Baghdad the rich could buy all kinds of luxury goods. There were jewels, silks, perfumes and spices from China and the Far East; decorated leather and glassware from North Africa and Egypt; furs from central Asia, and magnificent Persian carpets, tapestries and brocades. Arab traders even brought gold, ivory and ostrich feathers from tropical Africa, making the first real contacts between African people and the rest of the world. Helped by the common language of Arabic, ideas travelled as easily as goods throughout Islam. The Arabs were quick to learn from the peoples they had conquered. |
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Islamic Golden Age
Great writings from far and wide, especially those of ancient Greece, were translated and stored in vast libraries. The Renaissance was largely made possible because Arab scholars had saved and translated many of the classical works by authors such as Plato and Aristotle. Through trading with the Far East, Arabs learned about paper-making, the windmill, spinning wheel and magnetic compass. These inventions later reached Europe, through Spain and Sicily. So did the nine ‘Arabic’ numerals that we still use today (they originally came from India). The zero, which allows numerals to be arranged in columns representing tens, hundreds and so on, possibly came first from the Chinese. However it was a ninth century Muslim, Al-Khawarizmi, who first described it in a book that has come down to us. He was also one of the inventors of algebra (al-jabr in Arabic). |
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Not only in mathematics but also in medical science Muslim scholars were far in advance of Europeans in the Middle Ages. They made important discoveries in the treatment of eye disorders, so common in the East. Al-Razi from Baghdad (865-925) wrote about 140 books on medicine, including the first scientific account of smallpox. Avicenna, who lived a century later, wrote a medical encyclopaedia which was the most complete collection of medical knowledge made anywhere in the Middle Ages.
Islamic art is also impressive. Islamic religious art differs from Christian religious art in that it is non-figural because many Muslims believe that the depiction of the human form is idolatry , and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Quran. Calligraphy (writing) and mathematical pattern are important in Islamic art. The following set of videos show how geometrical patterns helped create the art of the Alhambra Palace in Grenada, Spain.
Islamic art is also impressive. Islamic religious art differs from Christian religious art in that it is non-figural because many Muslims believe that the depiction of the human form is idolatry , and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Quran. Calligraphy (writing) and mathematical pattern are important in Islamic art. The following set of videos show how geometrical patterns helped create the art of the Alhambra Palace in Grenada, Spain.
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Activities
1. Explain the relationship between Islam, Judaism and Christianity. Look at the 'Five Pillars of Islam'. What similarities with Christianity can you identify?
2. Why were Arabic traders and merchants so important?
3. Do some research on three significant innovations of Islam's golden age. This website is a good place to start. Try to illustrate your answer with appropriate images.
1. Explain the relationship between Islam, Judaism and Christianity. Look at the 'Five Pillars of Islam'. What similarities with Christianity can you identify?
2. Why were Arabic traders and merchants so important?
3. Do some research on three significant innovations of Islam's golden age. This website is a good place to start. Try to illustrate your answer with appropriate images.
Lesson 6 - The Vikings and the importance of archaeology
Vikings came from the Scandinavian lands of northern Europe. In their language a vikingr was a pirate, and to go a-viking meant an adventure overseas. This is how they got their name, although some of their victims called them ‘Northmen’. There were three main Viking races - Norwegians, Danes and Swedes. Most of the sea-raids on Europe were made by Norwegians and Danes. The Swedes were mainly interested in trade. Swedish merchants crossed the Baltic Sea and travelled up the great rivers of Asia and eastern Europe. Some settled round the shores of the Black Sea and traded with the Byzantines and Arabs. These peoples called them Rus, and that is how Russia got its name.
The earliest raids on Britain were made by the Norwegians, or ‘Norsemen’. They left their coastal fjords (creeks) in the spring and returned with the west winds of autumn. Plunder was not their only aim. They were also searching for new places to live. Good farming land is scarce in mountainous Norway.
The earliest raids on Britain were made by the Norwegians, or ‘Norsemen’. They left their coastal fjords (creeks) in the spring and returned with the west winds of autumn. Plunder was not their only aim. They were also searching for new places to live. Good farming land is scarce in mountainous Norway.
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About the year 800, Norsemen began to settle on the treeless islands to the north and west of Scotland: the Shetlands, Orkneys, Faroes and Hebrides. They brought their families and lived by farming, fishing and seal-hunting. These islands were ideal bases for attacks on Ireland.
By 820, according to an Irish chronicle, ‘. . . there was no harbour or landing-place . . . without fleets of Vikings’. From Ireland, Norse farmers settled in the Isle of Man and parts of north-western England. Some married Celtic women and were converted to Christianity. |
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Iceland was the next place to be settled by Norsemen. Although it was too cold for growing grain crops it had grassy regions suitable for cattle and sheep. By about 950 a large Viking colony had grown up there. At the time of the early Norse settlements around the British Isles, Danish Vikings were spreading panic in France, Germany and eastern England. At first they plundered coastal villages and monasteries. Then they grew bolder and sailed up great rivers, bringing destruction deep into the heart of the countryside. In 845 a Danish fleet sailed nearly 200 miles up the river Seine to ransack Paris. Soon many other Frankish towns had been destroyed. Parts of North Germany suffered a similar fate. And in the years 859-62 a mixed band of Vikings sailed south and raided the Mediterranean coasts as far as Italy.
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In 911 the Frankish king, Charles ‘the Simple’, realised he could not get rid of the invaders and decided to come to terms with them. He invited a Viking chieftain named Rollo to become the lawful ruler of the lands he controlled at the mouth of the River Seine. In return Rollo had to promise to protect Charles against further raids. Rollo and his followers were rough, seafaring men. But once they settled down they quickly became more civilised. They mixed with the Franks, who converted them to Christianity and taught them to speak French. The ‘Duchy of the Northmen’ became known as Normandy. It grew bigger and more powerful. A later Norman duke became King of England in 1066, the last time Britain was successfully invaded. (See the Norman invasion ships from the Bayeux Tapestry - right)
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North America?
Present-day Icelanders are descended mainly from these settlers and the Irish women and slaves they took with them. Later sagas (stories) of the Icelanders describe further voyages they made across the unknown Atlantic Ocean. In 982 a tough Norseman called Eric the Red (he had red hair) killed a man and was banished from Iceland for three years. He spent the time exploring a snow-covered land to the west, which had earlier been sighted by fishermen. After much searching he found a few areas of grassland along the coast. When Eric returned to Iceland he called this new country ‘Greenland’. He thought people would want to go there if it had an attractive name! Sure enough, when Eric went back to Greenland he was followed by shiploads of settlers. They must have been disappointed when they found it was not green at all, but mostly white with snow and ice. Nevertheless they stayed on, and other settlers followed.
Present-day Icelanders are descended mainly from these settlers and the Irish women and slaves they took with them. Later sagas (stories) of the Icelanders describe further voyages they made across the unknown Atlantic Ocean. In 982 a tough Norseman called Eric the Red (he had red hair) killed a man and was banished from Iceland for three years. He spent the time exploring a snow-covered land to the west, which had earlier been sighted by fishermen. After much searching he found a few areas of grassland along the coast. When Eric returned to Iceland he called this new country ‘Greenland’. He thought people would want to go there if it had an attractive name! Sure enough, when Eric went back to Greenland he was followed by shiploads of settlers. They must have been disappointed when they found it was not green at all, but mostly white with snow and ice. Nevertheless they stayed on, and other settlers followed.
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According to a saga written in the twelfth century, a man called Bjarni lost his way while sailing to Greenland in 986. Three times he sighted a strange coast, where trees grew in large numbers. But because it was not like reports he had heard of Greenland he went on, without landing, until he found his destination. If this story is true Bjarni was the first European to see the American continent, 500 years before the famous voyage of Columbus. The saga tells us that a few years later (about AD 1000) Leif Ericsson, son of Eric the Red, went to explore this new country. Using Bjarni’s information to set his course, Leif came to a land covered with dense forest.
This seemed an ideal place for Norse settlement. According to the saga, several expeditions followed, and landings were made along hundreds of miles of the North American coast. But as far as we know all attempts to establish settlements failed, because of attacks by people the Norsemen called Skraelings. These were probably native Americans. |
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The importance of archaeology
For many hundreds of years the stories of the Ericssons were largely considered to be myths, no more reliable as history that the myths we have studied about ancient Greece and Rome. The first European to have travelled to America was Columbus in 1492 and that was the only history that mattered until...
In the 1960s archaeologists Helge Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad found evidence to back up the Icelandic sagas. In Newfoundland they have unearthed dwellings similar to those found in other Viking settlements. At L'Anse aux Meadows, a group of mounds near the village that the locals called the "old Indian camp" looked like the remains of houses. Seven archaeological excavations were carried out from 1961 to 1968. They concluded that the site was of Norse origin because of definitive similarities between the characteristics of structures and artefacts found at the site compared to sites in Greenland and Iceland from around 1000 CE. Nearby they have found evidence of iron-making, which experts have dated to the eleventh century. This is significant, because we know that neither native Americans nor Inuits were then able to make iron.
L'Anse aux Meadows is the only confirmed Norse site in North America outside of Greenland.
In 2016 satellite images suggested the possible location of another site at Point Rosee, in southwestern Newfoundland. This film explains how the site was found. So far however, no clear evidence has been found to prove the site was a Viking settlement
For many hundreds of years the stories of the Ericssons were largely considered to be myths, no more reliable as history that the myths we have studied about ancient Greece and Rome. The first European to have travelled to America was Columbus in 1492 and that was the only history that mattered until...
In the 1960s archaeologists Helge Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad found evidence to back up the Icelandic sagas. In Newfoundland they have unearthed dwellings similar to those found in other Viking settlements. At L'Anse aux Meadows, a group of mounds near the village that the locals called the "old Indian camp" looked like the remains of houses. Seven archaeological excavations were carried out from 1961 to 1968. They concluded that the site was of Norse origin because of definitive similarities between the characteristics of structures and artefacts found at the site compared to sites in Greenland and Iceland from around 1000 CE. Nearby they have found evidence of iron-making, which experts have dated to the eleventh century. This is significant, because we know that neither native Americans nor Inuits were then able to make iron.
L'Anse aux Meadows is the only confirmed Norse site in North America outside of Greenland.
In 2016 satellite images suggested the possible location of another site at Point Rosee, in southwestern Newfoundland. This film explains how the site was found. So far however, no clear evidence has been found to prove the site was a Viking settlement
Activity 1
- Using the map above and Google Maps to help you, identify the settlements furthest north, south, east and west that the Vikings 'invaded' between 700 and 1000 AD.
- In your own words, explain how the Icelandic sagas tell the story of how the Vikings travelled to America.
- How has archeology proven that the Vikings really did travel to America?
- How have satellite images been used to help find possible Viking settlements in North America?
What was so special about Viking ships?
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Viking ships were a great improvement on earlier designs. Each had a proper keel, or ‘backbone’, made of a single length of oak. This was strong enough to stand the strain of a mast and a large square sail.
The steer-board, or rudder, was shaped like the blade of an oar and fixed on the right-hand side of the hull, near the stern. This side of a ship is still called the starboard (from steer-board). They also used a clinker build technique which is a method of boat building where the edges of hull planks overlap each other. This made the ship strong but also flexible to cope with the ocean waves. |
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The Gokstad Viking ship
A few well preserved Viking ships have been discovered. Perhaps the best example was found in 1880, under a burial mound at Gokstad, near Oslo. A thick layer of blue clay had kept out water and saved most of the wood from rotting. The ‘Gokstad ship’ was buried in about AD 900. The Gokstad ship is clinker-built and constructed largely of oak. The ship was intended for warfare, trade, transportation of people and cargo. The ship is 23.80 metres long and 5.10 m wide and designed to be used at sea. It is the largest in the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo. The ship was built to carry 32 oarsmen, and the oar holes could be hatched down when the ship was under sail. It had a square sail of approximately 110 square metres, which could propel the ship to over 12 knots (22 km/h).
A few well preserved Viking ships have been discovered. Perhaps the best example was found in 1880, under a burial mound at Gokstad, near Oslo. A thick layer of blue clay had kept out water and saved most of the wood from rotting. The ‘Gokstad ship’ was buried in about AD 900. The Gokstad ship is clinker-built and constructed largely of oak. The ship was intended for warfare, trade, transportation of people and cargo. The ship is 23.80 metres long and 5.10 m wide and designed to be used at sea. It is the largest in the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo. The ship was built to carry 32 oarsmen, and the oar holes could be hatched down when the ship was under sail. It had a square sail of approximately 110 square metres, which could propel the ship to over 12 knots (22 km/h).
The mast could be raised and lowered. While the ship was traveling in shallow water, the rudder could be raised very quickly by undoing the fastening. Dendrochronological dating suggests that the ship was built of timber that was felled around 890 AD.
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The Gokstad Viking ship was also a burial site. An important viking was buried with his shop and objects that were important to him. You can. find out what archaeologists have discovered about him from this website.
Experimental archaeology
Experimental archaeology (also called experiment archaeology and experiential archaeology) is a field of study which attempts to generate and test archaeological hypotheses, usually by replicating ancient cultures performing various tasks or feats. It employs a number of methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches, based upon archaeological source material such as ancient structures or artefacts. One of the main forms of experimental archaeology is the creation of copies of historical structures using only historically accurate technologies. This is a working construction of the past. Because of the significant cost involved and the genuine public interest, experimental archaeology has often worked with film and tv producers in order to produce the reconstruction. In recent years, experimental archaeology has been featured in several television productions, such as BBC's Building the Impossible and the PBS's Secrets of Lost Empires.
Experimental archaeology (also called experiment archaeology and experiential archaeology) is a field of study which attempts to generate and test archaeological hypotheses, usually by replicating ancient cultures performing various tasks or feats. It employs a number of methods, techniques, analyses, and approaches, based upon archaeological source material such as ancient structures or artefacts. One of the main forms of experimental archaeology is the creation of copies of historical structures using only historically accurate technologies. This is a working construction of the past. Because of the significant cost involved and the genuine public interest, experimental archaeology has often worked with film and tv producers in order to produce the reconstruction. In recent years, experimental archaeology has been featured in several television productions, such as BBC's Building the Impossible and the PBS's Secrets of Lost Empires.
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The seaworthiness of Viking ships was shown as early as 1893, when an exact copy of the Gokstad ship was sailed across the Atlantic, from Norway to Newfoundland. Under sail, the ship reached speeds of ten or eleven knots, and the crossing took only 28 days. The ship came through several storms undamaged, mainly because its springy sides bent with the waves.
The History Channel programme opposite is a very good example of experimental archaeology. In the programme the archaeologists explain some of the advantages of reconstructing the past that cannot be achieved by only reading books and studying artefacts. |
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In some ways the Vikings were more advanced than their southern neighbours. At a time when most European sailors kept within sight of land, Vikings could steer directly across open sea. They set their course by the position of the sun, or the pole-star after dark. If they met storms or fog they drifted aimlessly, but when the sky cleared they could correct their course. These skilful and adventurous men were among the greatest sailors the world has known.
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Activity 2
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Experimental archaeology - one final example
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In the film, which is a part of the NOVA series Secrets of Lost Empires, a team of timber framers and other specialists design, build, and fire a pair of trebuchets, a devastating engine of war popular in the Middle Ages.
The Treb Challenge. Excellent online game introduces the engineering and physics of trebuchet building. Crush the Castle game which tests your skill in attacking castles and in the advanced version also building them. |
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