Lesson 1 - What was the impact of the French Revolution on Europe?
The era of the French Revolution and Napoleon ended in 1815 but it did not stop being important. For many years to come, people all over Europe continued to feel its effects. In all sorts of ways, it helped to shape their lives, their beliefs and the societies in which they lived. Measure a metre, weigh a kilogram or pour out a litre, and you are using weights and measures invented by the revolutionaries in 1795. Look at the flags of the countries of Europe, and you will see that half are modelled on the tricolour flag of the revolutionaries of 1789. But the most significant legacy of 1789-1815 is to be found in the big ideas unleashed: liberalism, nationalism and revolution. In our last unit we saw how the English ruling class were obsessed with the fear that a revolution might overthrow the political system. Briitain's leaders gradually 'reformed in order to preserve' in order to avoid the threat of revolution.
Liberalism
The French Revolution began, when the Estates General of 1789 declared that it was a 'National Assembly' and set to work to write a constitution. It began by making a 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen’; giving French citizens equal rights and liberties. The idea of giving people liberty and equality through a constitution was one of the important achievements of the revolution. And when Napoleon conquered Europe in the 1800s, constitutions were introduced into the states that came under French control. The ideas of liberty and equality therefore spread throughout Europe with the end of feudalism and the imposition of the Code Napoleon.
In 1815, however, after they had defeated Napoleon, the old rulers of Europe took back their thrones. Many got rid of his constitutions and went back to ruling their states in the old way. But they could not wipe out people's memories of what it was like to be ruled with a constitution. Millions of Europeans became 'liberals' (a concept possibly invented in Switzerland cf. lesson 5), believing in the ideas of liberty and equality, and wanting a constitution giving them rights. These ideas were consolidated in to the ideology of liberalism.
Liberalism in the early 19th century was a political and economic ideology that sought to expand individual freedoms, limit the power of the state, and promote economic and political reforms. Emerging in the wake of the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions, liberalism opposed the remnants of feudalism and advocated for constitutional government, the rule of law, and free-market economics.
1. Liberalism and the End of Feudalism
One of the central goals of early 19th-century liberals was dismantling the last vestiges of feudalism, which had structured European society for centuries. Feudal privileges, such as hereditary aristocratic power, the manorial system, and restrictions on trade and property ownership, were seen as obstacles to progress. The French Revolution (1789) had already abolished feudalism in France, and liberals across Europe sought similar reforms, advocating for legal equality, private property rights, and the removal of aristocratic privileges.
2. Philosophical Foundations: Locke, Voltaire, Paine, Bentham and Constant.
John Locke (1632–1704): Often called the "father of liberalism," Locke’s ideas laid the foundation for early liberal thought. He argued that individuals possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property and that governments should exist only to protect these rights. His "social contract" theory suggested that legitimate governments derive their authority from the consent of the governed, not divine right or hereditary rule. Voltaire (1694 –1778) François-Marie Arouet, a French writer and philosopher, is remembered as a courageous polemicist who fought for toleration, civil rights – the right to a fair trial and freedom of religion – and someone who denounced the hypocrisies and injustices of the ancien régime (feudalism). Thomas Paine (1737–1809): A key advocate of republicanism and individual rights, Paine’s works, such as Common Sense (1776) and The Rights of Man (1791), attacked monarchy and hereditary privilege. He championed democracy, universal suffrage, and legal equality, aligning with liberal opposition to feudal institutions. Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832): A leading utilitarian thinker, Bentham argued that government policies should be judged by their ability to maximize happiness—the principle of "the greatest good for the greatest number." His advocacy for legal and social reforms, including representative government and legal codification, influenced 19th-century liberal movements. Benjamin Constant (1767–1830) was a key early 19th-century Swiss thinker who bridged the gap between classical and modern liberalism. 'Liberty of the Ancients' (e.g., Greek and Roman republics), focused on collective political participation, where citizens had direct influence over laws and decisions but had little personal freedom. Liberty of the Moderns (post-Enlightenment societies) emphasized individual rights and personal freedoms, such as freedom of speech, private property, and economic independence. Citizens participated in government through representative institutions rather than direct democracy.
3. Economic Liberalism and Free Markets
Liberalism was not only a political ideology but also an economic one. Economic liberals, influenced by Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776), argued for free trade, competition, and minimal government intervention in the economy. They campaigned for the removal of the last feudal laws which restricted the freedom of the market. Early 19th-century liberals believed that unrestricted markets would lead to wealth and progress. In Britain, economic liberalism influenced policies such as the repeal of the Corn Laws (1846), which ended protectionist tariffs on grain which had been in place to protect the interests of the big landowners (aristocracy).
4. National Freedom and Self-Determination
Liberalism in the early 19th century was also linked to nationalist movements that sought to liberate nations from foreign rule and absolutist monarchies. Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, liberal nationalists argued that people with shared cultures, languages, and histories had the right to self-governance. This ideology fueled independence movements in Latin America, the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829), and revolutions across Europe in 1830 and 1848. (See below)
The revolutionaries of the nineteenth century borrowed images as well as ideas from the French Revolution. The most famous of those images was that of 'Liberty'. Liberty was portrayed as a young woman, Marianne, and she appeared in countless pictures, statues and models throughout the French Revolution. She appeared again during the revolutions of 1830. See Delacroix's painting of the 1830 Revolution below. (This is popular with Matu examiners and students are often asked to explain liberalism). It was restored in 2024 and can be seen in its detailed restored glory by clicking on the image below or high definition here.
Liberalism
The French Revolution began, when the Estates General of 1789 declared that it was a 'National Assembly' and set to work to write a constitution. It began by making a 'Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen’; giving French citizens equal rights and liberties. The idea of giving people liberty and equality through a constitution was one of the important achievements of the revolution. And when Napoleon conquered Europe in the 1800s, constitutions were introduced into the states that came under French control. The ideas of liberty and equality therefore spread throughout Europe with the end of feudalism and the imposition of the Code Napoleon.
In 1815, however, after they had defeated Napoleon, the old rulers of Europe took back their thrones. Many got rid of his constitutions and went back to ruling their states in the old way. But they could not wipe out people's memories of what it was like to be ruled with a constitution. Millions of Europeans became 'liberals' (a concept possibly invented in Switzerland cf. lesson 5), believing in the ideas of liberty and equality, and wanting a constitution giving them rights. These ideas were consolidated in to the ideology of liberalism.
Liberalism in the early 19th century was a political and economic ideology that sought to expand individual freedoms, limit the power of the state, and promote economic and political reforms. Emerging in the wake of the Enlightenment and the American and French Revolutions, liberalism opposed the remnants of feudalism and advocated for constitutional government, the rule of law, and free-market economics.
1. Liberalism and the End of Feudalism
One of the central goals of early 19th-century liberals was dismantling the last vestiges of feudalism, which had structured European society for centuries. Feudal privileges, such as hereditary aristocratic power, the manorial system, and restrictions on trade and property ownership, were seen as obstacles to progress. The French Revolution (1789) had already abolished feudalism in France, and liberals across Europe sought similar reforms, advocating for legal equality, private property rights, and the removal of aristocratic privileges.
2. Philosophical Foundations: Locke, Voltaire, Paine, Bentham and Constant.
John Locke (1632–1704): Often called the "father of liberalism," Locke’s ideas laid the foundation for early liberal thought. He argued that individuals possess natural rights to life, liberty, and property and that governments should exist only to protect these rights. His "social contract" theory suggested that legitimate governments derive their authority from the consent of the governed, not divine right or hereditary rule. Voltaire (1694 –1778) François-Marie Arouet, a French writer and philosopher, is remembered as a courageous polemicist who fought for toleration, civil rights – the right to a fair trial and freedom of religion – and someone who denounced the hypocrisies and injustices of the ancien régime (feudalism). Thomas Paine (1737–1809): A key advocate of republicanism and individual rights, Paine’s works, such as Common Sense (1776) and The Rights of Man (1791), attacked monarchy and hereditary privilege. He championed democracy, universal suffrage, and legal equality, aligning with liberal opposition to feudal institutions. Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832): A leading utilitarian thinker, Bentham argued that government policies should be judged by their ability to maximize happiness—the principle of "the greatest good for the greatest number." His advocacy for legal and social reforms, including representative government and legal codification, influenced 19th-century liberal movements. Benjamin Constant (1767–1830) was a key early 19th-century Swiss thinker who bridged the gap between classical and modern liberalism. 'Liberty of the Ancients' (e.g., Greek and Roman republics), focused on collective political participation, where citizens had direct influence over laws and decisions but had little personal freedom. Liberty of the Moderns (post-Enlightenment societies) emphasized individual rights and personal freedoms, such as freedom of speech, private property, and economic independence. Citizens participated in government through representative institutions rather than direct democracy.
3. Economic Liberalism and Free Markets
Liberalism was not only a political ideology but also an economic one. Economic liberals, influenced by Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations (1776), argued for free trade, competition, and minimal government intervention in the economy. They campaigned for the removal of the last feudal laws which restricted the freedom of the market. Early 19th-century liberals believed that unrestricted markets would lead to wealth and progress. In Britain, economic liberalism influenced policies such as the repeal of the Corn Laws (1846), which ended protectionist tariffs on grain which had been in place to protect the interests of the big landowners (aristocracy).
4. National Freedom and Self-Determination
Liberalism in the early 19th century was also linked to nationalist movements that sought to liberate nations from foreign rule and absolutist monarchies. Inspired by the American and French Revolutions, liberal nationalists argued that people with shared cultures, languages, and histories had the right to self-governance. This ideology fueled independence movements in Latin America, the Greek War of Independence (1821–1829), and revolutions across Europe in 1830 and 1848. (See below)
The revolutionaries of the nineteenth century borrowed images as well as ideas from the French Revolution. The most famous of those images was that of 'Liberty'. Liberty was portrayed as a young woman, Marianne, and she appeared in countless pictures, statues and models throughout the French Revolution. She appeared again during the revolutions of 1830. See Delacroix's painting of the 1830 Revolution below. (This is popular with Matu examiners and students are often asked to explain liberalism). It was restored in 2024 and can be seen in its detailed restored glory by clicking on the image below or high definition here.
|
|
Perhaps the most famous image of liberty (and Marianne) is the Statue of Liberty (below) at the entrance to New York harbour. This 200 tonne, 97m high copper statue was a gift to the United States from the French people to show the friendship between their two republics. It was suggested by a French historian to commemorate the 100th anniversary of American independence. Below right shows the Goddess of Liberty produced by Chinese students in 1989 during the pro-democracy demonstrations in Tiananmen Square, which never happened if you happen to be studying history in China.
|
|
Activity 1
1. What is liberalism? This is a question you must prepare for the Matu orals. This is a question that is made difficult by the changing meaning of liberalism over time. Here you need to explain the features of early 19th century liberalism including the important thinkers most associated with the idea. Design a mindmap of a revision diagram to help you summarise the four points above.
2. Analyse Delacroix's painting. Again this is a popular question with the Matu examiners. This involves understanding the historical events, political climate, artistic movements, and cultural values of the period. The meaning of the painting can be interpreted through its symbolism, subject matter, and how it reflects or challenges contemporary beliefs. Use the film above to help you.
1. What is liberalism? This is a question you must prepare for the Matu orals. This is a question that is made difficult by the changing meaning of liberalism over time. Here you need to explain the features of early 19th century liberalism including the important thinkers most associated with the idea. Design a mindmap of a revision diagram to help you summarise the four points above.
2. Analyse Delacroix's painting. Again this is a popular question with the Matu examiners. This involves understanding the historical events, political climate, artistic movements, and cultural values of the period. The meaning of the painting can be interpreted through its symbolism, subject matter, and how it reflects or challenges contemporary beliefs. Use the film above to help you.
Revolution
The revolution of 1789 was important because it successfully overthrew a social and political system of government that had dominated Europe for centuries. The ideas of the Enlightenment - the most important being liberty - provided a motivation for the revolt and some guidelines about the sort of new social and political order to be created, but most important was the fact that ordinary people had successfully risen up to force these changes to be made. Popular revolution had been shown to be effective; that is if it happened once, it could happen again. In this sense 1789 became a symbol - either inspiration or threat - that dominated the thoughts of Europeans throughout the 19th century.
For liberals, nationalists and (later) socialists in Europe who sought to bring about fundamental changes to the existing social and political order, 1789 was the inspiration that encouraged new revolutionaries to believe that radical change could be brought about through popular unrest. For those in authority, the French Revolution acted as a constant reminder of what can happen when 'ordinary' people are allowed to take power into their hands. Radicals may have drawn lessons from the Tennis Court Oath and storming of the Bastille, but conservatives focused their attention on the guillotine and the Terror. Europe would be engulfed by revolutionary moments throughout the 19th century - notably in 1830 and 1848 - that would bring about the social and political transformation of the continent. And as we have seen, even those countries like Britain that avoided revolution, brought about significant social and political reform because the ruling classes feared revolution would force about changes if they failed 'to reform in order to preserve.'
The revolution of 1789 was important because it successfully overthrew a social and political system of government that had dominated Europe for centuries. The ideas of the Enlightenment - the most important being liberty - provided a motivation for the revolt and some guidelines about the sort of new social and political order to be created, but most important was the fact that ordinary people had successfully risen up to force these changes to be made. Popular revolution had been shown to be effective; that is if it happened once, it could happen again. In this sense 1789 became a symbol - either inspiration or threat - that dominated the thoughts of Europeans throughout the 19th century.
For liberals, nationalists and (later) socialists in Europe who sought to bring about fundamental changes to the existing social and political order, 1789 was the inspiration that encouraged new revolutionaries to believe that radical change could be brought about through popular unrest. For those in authority, the French Revolution acted as a constant reminder of what can happen when 'ordinary' people are allowed to take power into their hands. Radicals may have drawn lessons from the Tennis Court Oath and storming of the Bastille, but conservatives focused their attention on the guillotine and the Terror. Europe would be engulfed by revolutionary moments throughout the 19th century - notably in 1830 and 1848 - that would bring about the social and political transformation of the continent. And as we have seen, even those countries like Britain that avoided revolution, brought about significant social and political reform because the ruling classes feared revolution would force about changes if they failed 'to reform in order to preserve.'
Brussels
|
Berlin
|
Milan
|
Nationalism
The final key idea of the French Revolution was that France was a nation, not a kingdom. In other words, France was not the personal property of King Louis XVI: it was a union of all 28 million French-speaking people. For all of human history an indivudual's collective identity had been attached to a tangible social institution such as the family, the clan or the parish. Now for the first time, identity was projected onto an imaginary, abstract community of people who had never met in real life, the nation.
The first act of the French revolutionaries in 1789 was to set up a National Assembly to speak for these people. Soon after, they adopted the tricolour flag to represent the nation — the red and blue colours of the people of Paris combined with the king's traditional white. During the Revolutionary wars, the French set up new nations in the lands they had conquered. Italian speaking people were brought together into nations such as the Roman Republic. Later, Poles gained their own nation when Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Millions of Germans became citizens of new nations when Napoleon forced 300 German rulers to unite into just thirty states (see map below). Many European people thus found out what it was like to live in their own nation, and to be ruled according to a constitution.
The final key idea of the French Revolution was that France was a nation, not a kingdom. In other words, France was not the personal property of King Louis XVI: it was a union of all 28 million French-speaking people. For all of human history an indivudual's collective identity had been attached to a tangible social institution such as the family, the clan or the parish. Now for the first time, identity was projected onto an imaginary, abstract community of people who had never met in real life, the nation.
The first act of the French revolutionaries in 1789 was to set up a National Assembly to speak for these people. Soon after, they adopted the tricolour flag to represent the nation — the red and blue colours of the people of Paris combined with the king's traditional white. During the Revolutionary wars, the French set up new nations in the lands they had conquered. Italian speaking people were brought together into nations such as the Roman Republic. Later, Poles gained their own nation when Napoleon created the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. Millions of Germans became citizens of new nations when Napoleon forced 300 German rulers to unite into just thirty states (see map below). Many European people thus found out what it was like to live in their own nation, and to be ruled according to a constitution.
This came to an end in 1815 (see Lesson 3). Politicians from the countries that defeated Napoleon met in Vienna, capital of Austria, to redraw the map of Europe. At the Congress of Vienna, as this meeting was called, they re-created many of the old states that Napoleon had destroyed. Old royal families took back their thrones in Spain and the Italian states. A German Confederation of thirty-nine states replaced Napoleon's Rhine Confederation. Belgium, Holland and Luxemburg became a single Kingdom of the Netherlands. The new borders of Europe had nothing to do with people's nationality. (See map above) Millions of Italians were under Austrian rule, Poles under Russian rule, and so on. Napoleon and the French, however, had set an example that these people would not forget. Throughout the nineteenth century, people living under foreign rule, or living in separate states from their fellow countrymen, did what the French had done in 1789: they started revolutions to change the way they were ruled.
Nationalism is a nineteenth-century creed. It is an identification of people with territory, and sometimes with language, which goes on to argue for an identification of the defined nation with a political state. Such a need, experienced in Europe at a state-nation level from the sixteenth century, becomes an important cultural process only with the advent of industrial capitalist societies. People then really do require the bonding provided by a sense of shared nationality. Literacy allows them to communicate and to group together even if they never see each other. Mobility reinforces the need and the senses of a national community. There were countries without maps but no nations, in this sense, without railways... Until the nineteenth century, except for an élite, there was no use for a widespread, embracing concept like nation. Loyalties and organising principles were based on more immediate concerns for most people.
Professor Dai Smith, Wales: A Question for History, 1999.
What is nationalism?
The idea of a modern nation began with the elites and students, often romantic exiles, who collected cultural artefacts (songs, folk tales, myths and histories etc.) and who established nostalgic, ritual celebrations of the old country. You will see this pattern repeated across Europe in the 19th century as these new 'nation states' were imagined in these clubs and societies: Filiki Eteria (Greek Society of Friends 1814), Mazzini's Young Italy (Giovine Italia 1831), La Jeune Belgique (Young Belgium) the German Burschenschaften (Student Societies) and in Switzerland the Helvetic Society (1761 - Matu 3, Lesson 1). But for the idea of nation to have genuine popular, 'national' appeal, the industrial revolution with its communication revolution was essential. As we saw in the previous unit, capitalism and the industrial revolution helped to create and sustain these imaginery communities as nation states. It was impossible to build a nation on the basis of an illiterate, isolated peasant class. Nations need towns, trains and newspapers.
The idea of a modern nation began with the elites and students, often romantic exiles, who collected cultural artefacts (songs, folk tales, myths and histories etc.) and who established nostalgic, ritual celebrations of the old country. You will see this pattern repeated across Europe in the 19th century as these new 'nation states' were imagined in these clubs and societies: Filiki Eteria (Greek Society of Friends 1814), Mazzini's Young Italy (Giovine Italia 1831), La Jeune Belgique (Young Belgium) the German Burschenschaften (Student Societies) and in Switzerland the Helvetic Society (1761 - Matu 3, Lesson 1). But for the idea of nation to have genuine popular, 'national' appeal, the industrial revolution with its communication revolution was essential. As we saw in the previous unit, capitalism and the industrial revolution helped to create and sustain these imaginery communities as nation states. It was impossible to build a nation on the basis of an illiterate, isolated peasant class. Nations need towns, trains and newspapers.
|
|
|
Activity 2
Read through the above text very carefully. Write two paragraphs - in your own words - to explain the legacy of the French Revolution though the addtional concept of nationalism and revolution.
Can you think of an event that might happen in the early 19th century that might be caused by the ideas of liberalism, nationalism and revolution coming together?
The Historiana website has a good source based summary of the ideas outlined in this lesson.
Read through the above text very carefully. Write two paragraphs - in your own words - to explain the legacy of the French Revolution though the addtional concept of nationalism and revolution.
Can you think of an event that might happen in the early 19th century that might be caused by the ideas of liberalism, nationalism and revolution coming together?
The Historiana website has a good source based summary of the ideas outlined in this lesson.