Lesson 3 - Long-term cultural and political causes of the French Revolution
Cultural causes
This should all be very familiar to you now, we've done it three times! The ideas of the Enlightenment were particularly widespread in France. As we have seen the most important of the Enlightenment political philosophers were French, they are known to history as the philosophes. They were public intellectuals, widely read but also heard in the many salon soirées hosted by prominent ladies amongst the French social elites. They strongly endorsed progress and tolerance, and distrusted organised religion (most were deists) and feudal institutions. Many also contributed to Diderot's Encyclopédie. Perhaps most importantly, the radical ideas of the philosophes had recently inspired a successful revolution in America. And nothing helps an idea spread quickly better than an idea that has been applied successfully.
This should all be very familiar to you now, we've done it three times! The ideas of the Enlightenment were particularly widespread in France. As we have seen the most important of the Enlightenment political philosophers were French, they are known to history as the philosophes. They were public intellectuals, widely read but also heard in the many salon soirées hosted by prominent ladies amongst the French social elites. They strongly endorsed progress and tolerance, and distrusted organised religion (most were deists) and feudal institutions. Many also contributed to Diderot's Encyclopédie. Perhaps most importantly, the radical ideas of the philosophes had recently inspired a successful revolution in America. And nothing helps an idea spread quickly better than an idea that has been applied successfully.
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From where we sit, the two most interesting of the philosophes were Rousseau (because he was born in Geneva) and Voltaire (because he ended up here). Rousseau's father lived in Nyon and in his Confessions Rousseau describes coming to visit him.
'It was necessary to pass through Nyon: could I do this without seeing my good father? Had I resolved on doing so, I must afterwards have died with regret. I left Merceret at the inn, and ventured to his house. How wrong was I to fear him! On seeing me, his soul gave way to the parental tenderness with which it was filled. What tears were mingled with our embraces! ...I continued my journey the next morning, well satisfied that I had seen my father, and had taken courage to do my duty.' |
I wonder if any of you can find the house? It's less than 500m from where our school used to be.
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For those desperate to know more see my textbook IB History of Europe Course Companion pages 1-10. An edited extract on the ideas behind the revolution is here.
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Alternatively, if jumping ahead a few years and trying a Higher Level IB Diploma text is not enough of a challenge for you, why not try some history from Yale University? The late great John Merriman (1946-2022) was recorded lecturing a 'history 202' course for Yale undergraduates 'European Civiliization' (left). This episode covers the impact of the Enlightenment, much of which you will easily understand. He also does later lessons on the French Revolution and Napoleon, as well conveniently covering the whole of Matu course up to the end of the Second World War. |
Political causes
In any political revolution, political causes are central. In the end, the people must be willing to forcibly remove rulers whom they feel are responsible for the country's ills. The economic and social problems of France created a context in which people wanted change. The ideas of the philosophes provided arguments about what should change and why. But history shows that revolution can be avoided when rulers are skilled, determined and ruthless. Unfortunately for the future of the French monarchy, Louis XVI was none of these things.
Individuals in history can make a difference, even if in simplistic historical explanations there is a temptation to explain too much based on simple character traits. The documentary at the top of this page is typical of this 'bad King John' theory of history. There is little doubt that Louis and his wife Marie Antoinette were not ideal monarchs for a time of crisis. Louis was not interested in ruling and their personal difficulties and extravagance did much to undermine their authority. The fact that at Versailles they lived a life of extraordinary opulence, surrounded by sycophantic courtiers and were literally detached from the French people in a 1000 room palace, 18km from Paris, was not their fault. This was how it had always been.
In any political revolution, political causes are central. In the end, the people must be willing to forcibly remove rulers whom they feel are responsible for the country's ills. The economic and social problems of France created a context in which people wanted change. The ideas of the philosophes provided arguments about what should change and why. But history shows that revolution can be avoided when rulers are skilled, determined and ruthless. Unfortunately for the future of the French monarchy, Louis XVI was none of these things.
Individuals in history can make a difference, even if in simplistic historical explanations there is a temptation to explain too much based on simple character traits. The documentary at the top of this page is typical of this 'bad King John' theory of history. There is little doubt that Louis and his wife Marie Antoinette were not ideal monarchs for a time of crisis. Louis was not interested in ruling and their personal difficulties and extravagance did much to undermine their authority. The fact that at Versailles they lived a life of extraordinary opulence, surrounded by sycophantic courtiers and were literally detached from the French people in a 1000 room palace, 18km from Paris, was not their fault. This was how it had always been.
'Bad King John' theory of history. |
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Unlike in many other European countries the French state and political system had significantly changed despite the significant social and econmic changes we saw last lesson. Both the First and Second Estates also had their own advisory and legislative bodies that were used by the king, especially when he needed support their support. The Assembly of Notables (Assemblée des Notables) was a handpicked group of nobles, clergy, and officials called by the king (not elected) to advise on major issues, especially taxation or reforms. Also important were the regional Parlements which were courts (confusingly not parliaments in the English sense) like the Paris Parlement which could not make laws but could stop the king form doing whatever he wanted. Importantly, there was no institution to represent the Third Estate except the Estates General and this had not met since 1614.
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The Estates General had three separate assemblies for each of the Three Estates: the clergy, nobility and the rest. It had no power in its own right - unlike the English parliament it was not required to approve royal taxation or legislation - instead it functioned as an advisory body to the king. It was appointed and dismissed by him. It was this political system that many French people - including some members of the clergy and nobility - believed needed to change. In reality, France was governed by the thousands of noblemen who lived alongside Louis XVI at Versailles. In the absence of any checks and balances on their power, this rule became increasingly despotic. One of the best examples of this was the widespread use of lettres de cachet or sealed letters. Lettres de cachet were royal warrants ordering the exile or imprisonment of the person named in it. The king could sign these and give them to his ministers to use as they wished, it was up to them to put a name in it. Quite often they were used by ministers to imprison rivals or critics of the government in the Bastille. Voltaire, for example, received two lettres de cachet. They could be entirely arbitrary, without either justification or right of appeal. During the reign of Louis XVI 14,000 such letters issued. For many, lettres de cachet were a potent symbol of the injustice of the King's rule.
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Activity - Causes of the French Revolution - essay plan. (Part 1 - Long-Term Causes)
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Following on from the last essay plan you made on the American Revolution, we are going to apply the same technique to the causes of the French Revolution. If you'd like to, you can download a planning template here. You can start by incorporating the ideas from the two paragraphs on social and economic causes you wrote last lesson.
You do not need to answer all the questions on the sheet. They are there to get you thinking and you expected to remove them when you are finished. Upload the completed sheet to your OneNote. Remember this is just the first stage in the plan... Short-term causes are to be added later. Check your understanding
The slide deck below includes a number of images which should trigger thoughts about the long-term causes of the French Revolution. There is an explanation below that will also help. But the examples - name, place, date etc. - you need to get from the lessons. |
Social causes
France in the 18th century was a society under increasing strain. As you saw in the documentary, the population grew significantly during this period, putting pressure on food supplies, land and employment. You studied in Matu 1 how the growth of trade, empire and companies like the East India Companies created new classes of wealthy merchants and urban workers. These new social classes did not fit neatly into the ancient three estates system, which had been designed for a very different world. At the top of that system, the Catholic clergy of the First Estate and the nobility of the Second Estate enjoyed enormous privileges: exemptions from taxes, ownership of vast amounts of land and political influence. The vast majority of French people in the Third Estate had almost none of these advantages.
Economic causes
France's financial problems in the 1780s had deep roots. You learned in Matu 1 about the Seven Years' War, which France lost to Britain, leaving the country heavily in debt. Louis XVI then spent a fortune supporting the American Revolution against Britain, a decision that brought France close to bankruptcy. The burden of paying these debts fell overwhelmingly on ordinary people, because the tax system was deeply unfair. The main land tax, the taille, was paid only by the Third Estate, while the clergy and nobility were largely exempt. Peasants faced the additional burden of feudal dues: the corvée, the tithe and fees to use their lord's mill or wine press. Meanwhile, between 1730 and 1789, the cost of living rose sharply while wages barely kept pace, making everyday life increasingly difficult for millions of French people.
Cultural causes
The ideas that made revolution thinkable came from the Enlightenment, a movement you studied in depth in Matu 1. For the first time, thinkers were arguing that society should be organised not according to tradition and religion but according to reason and evidence. In France, a group of writers known as the philosophes published their ideas widely, reaching educated audiences in salons across Paris and beyond. Many contributed to Diderot's Encyclopédie, a vast project intended to gather all human knowledge in one place and make it accessible. These thinkers questioned whether inequality was natural or just, and criticised the arbitrary power of the monarchy. Practices like lettres de cachet, by which the king could imprison anyone without trial, became symbols of everything they opposed. When the American Revolution succeeded in 1776, it showed that these ideas were not just theories but could actually be put into practice.
Political causes
France in the 18th century was an absolute monarchy, which meant that in theory the king had unlimited power. But as you saw in the documentary, Louis XVI was not the kind of ruler capable of using that power effectively in a time of crisis. When he tried to reform the tax system to address France's financial problems, he was blocked by the Assembly of Notables and the regional Parlements, bodies dominated by the nobility, who had no interest in giving up their privileges. There was no institution through which ordinary people could make their voices heard. The Estates General, which could in theory represent all three estates, had not been called since 1614. The use of lettres de cachet was a daily reminder of how little protection ordinary French people had under absolute monarchy.
France in the 18th century was a society under increasing strain. As you saw in the documentary, the population grew significantly during this period, putting pressure on food supplies, land and employment. You studied in Matu 1 how the growth of trade, empire and companies like the East India Companies created new classes of wealthy merchants and urban workers. These new social classes did not fit neatly into the ancient three estates system, which had been designed for a very different world. At the top of that system, the Catholic clergy of the First Estate and the nobility of the Second Estate enjoyed enormous privileges: exemptions from taxes, ownership of vast amounts of land and political influence. The vast majority of French people in the Third Estate had almost none of these advantages.
Economic causes
France's financial problems in the 1780s had deep roots. You learned in Matu 1 about the Seven Years' War, which France lost to Britain, leaving the country heavily in debt. Louis XVI then spent a fortune supporting the American Revolution against Britain, a decision that brought France close to bankruptcy. The burden of paying these debts fell overwhelmingly on ordinary people, because the tax system was deeply unfair. The main land tax, the taille, was paid only by the Third Estate, while the clergy and nobility were largely exempt. Peasants faced the additional burden of feudal dues: the corvée, the tithe and fees to use their lord's mill or wine press. Meanwhile, between 1730 and 1789, the cost of living rose sharply while wages barely kept pace, making everyday life increasingly difficult for millions of French people.
Cultural causes
The ideas that made revolution thinkable came from the Enlightenment, a movement you studied in depth in Matu 1. For the first time, thinkers were arguing that society should be organised not according to tradition and religion but according to reason and evidence. In France, a group of writers known as the philosophes published their ideas widely, reaching educated audiences in salons across Paris and beyond. Many contributed to Diderot's Encyclopédie, a vast project intended to gather all human knowledge in one place and make it accessible. These thinkers questioned whether inequality was natural or just, and criticised the arbitrary power of the monarchy. Practices like lettres de cachet, by which the king could imprison anyone without trial, became symbols of everything they opposed. When the American Revolution succeeded in 1776, it showed that these ideas were not just theories but could actually be put into practice.
Political causes
France in the 18th century was an absolute monarchy, which meant that in theory the king had unlimited power. But as you saw in the documentary, Louis XVI was not the kind of ruler capable of using that power effectively in a time of crisis. When he tried to reform the tax system to address France's financial problems, he was blocked by the Assembly of Notables and the regional Parlements, bodies dominated by the nobility, who had no interest in giving up their privileges. There was no institution through which ordinary people could make their voices heard. The Estates General, which could in theory represent all three estates, had not been called since 1614. The use of lettres de cachet was a daily reminder of how little protection ordinary French people had under absolute monarchy.