Lesson 1 - Introduction - What was 'New Imperialism'?
Imperialism and empire building wasn't new in the late 19th century. You will have studied many examples of one country dominating and subjecting another to control in various forms. From the Portuguese in the 1400s to the Spanish, Dutch, French and British in the 1600s, Europeans had already created large overseas empires. You should recall earlier topics such as, exploration and the Atlantic slave trade, the Columbian Exchange and early British, French and Dutch empire-building.
These two Crash Course films will provide you with an overview of essentials from the 15th-17th centuries.
These two Crash Course films will provide you with an overview of essentials from the 15th-17th centuries.
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These earlier empires share several common features:
- Limited European presence, mostly around coasts and trading posts.
- Motivations centred on precious metals, trade routes, and mercantilism.
- Empires driven by monarchies, charter companies (e.g. East India Company), and missionary activity.
- Slow communication, slow conquest, and small numbers of Europeans.
What was new about 'new imperialism'?
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Technological change, industrial capitalism, and nationalist rivalry transformed the scale and speed of empire-building. Where earlier empires grew over centuries, the “New Imperialism” saw vast territories seized within just a few decades. Empires became deeper, more intrusive, more bureaucratic, and far more competitive. New powers — Germany, Italy, Japan, and the United States — joined the race, and much of Africa and Asia was carved up in an astonishingly short period of time.
In short, New Imperialism was not simply “more” imperialism. It was a different phenomenon, driven by industrial power, global rivalry, and new ideologies about civilisation and race. This unit explores how and why that transformation occurred. |
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In the 40 years after 1870 European countries expanded their existing colonial empires by over 25 million square kilometres and acquired in the process up to 150 million new subjects, about a tenth of the world's population at that time. They also established spheres of influence in China and in Latin America, and were joined in their search for concessions and economic privileges by the newly unified states of Germany and Italy, and by the United States and Japan. In the 36 years after 1878, Europe and the United States acquired about 17.4 per cent of the world's land surface at an average rate of some 620,000 square kilometres a year.
Eight Causes of New Imperialism
European imperialism after 1870 had many overlapping causes. Below are 8 common causes identified by historians.
1. Scientific and Technological Advances
New technologies made large-scale expansion possible in ways that had not existed before. Steamships and railways allowed Europeans to travel long distances more quickly and move troops and goods inland. The electric telegraph meant governments could communicate with colonies instantly across continents. Medical breakthroughs, especially the use of quinine to treat malaria, allowed Europeans to survive for longer in tropical regions where disease had previously limited expansion. These developments opened up Africa and Asia to explorers like Livingstone and Stanley, and later to missionaries and traders who followed them.
2. Social Darwinist Beliefs
European thinkers increasingly misused Darwin’s theories to justify racial hierarchy. The idea of “survival of the fittest” was distorted to suggest that stronger nations were destined to rule “weaker” races. Many believed in a civilising mission (the “White Man’s Burden”) claiming Europeans had a duty to spread Christianity and Western values. Leaders such as Jules Ferry in France (look out for him in the Matu exam) argued that expansion was necessary to prevent national decline. These ideas made imperialism appear morally justified and even necessary.
3. Popular Nationalism
Mass literacy and urbanisation created a new politically conscious public who were eager consumers of imperial stories. A growing popular press produced newspapers, travel writing, and adventure tales that romanticised empire. Stories of explorers, soldiers, and missionaries fostered national pride and made overseas conquest seem exciting and heroic. Groups such as Germany’s Colonial League encouraged public support for expansion. With more democratic politics, governments increasingly played to these nationalistic expectations.
4. The Ambitions of Politicians
Political leaders saw empire as a way to strengthen their countries and their own position. After France’s humiliating defeat in 1871, leaders sought to rebuild national prestige, shown in the occupation of Tunis (1881–82). Germany’s rapid industrial rise led figures like Chancellor Caprivi to argue that gaining colonies was essential for becoming a “great people”. As democracy expanded, politicians needed popular support, and imperial success appealed to voters. Leaders also used colonial expansion to distract from domestic problems, unite divided societies, and compete with rivals.
5. Strategic Motives
European and Asian powers were also driven by the need to protect vital trade routes and military positions. The Suez Canal (opened 1869) became Britain’s lifeline to India, leading to the occupation of Egypt in 1882 to secure it. Control of ports, coaling stations, and naval bases - such as at the Cape of Good Hope - was essential for global power. In Asia, Japan’s expansion in Korea and northern China in the 1890s forced European powers and Russia to respond, intensifying competition. Strategic concerns often pushed countries to annex territory even when the area had little economic value.
6. Peripheral Factors
Events in the colonies themselves often triggered imperial intervention. The weakness of the Egyptian Khedive’s government allowed Britain to intervene and eventually take control. The collapse of Qing authority in China invited foreign powers to demand treaty ports and spheres of influence. Local political crises - financial breakdowns, revolts, or civil wars - created power vacuums European powers moved to fill. Conversely, strong states like Ethiopia, which defeated Italy at Adowa (1896), could resist European expansion. Imperialism was therefore shaped not only by European motives but also by local conditions.
7. The Search for Markets and Raw Materials
Industrialisation drove a growing appetite for both buyers and resources. Factories in Europe produced more goods than domestic markets could absorb, so countries looked abroad for new customers, especially the vast potential market of China’s 400 million people. Industrial production needed increasing amounts of raw materials: Cotton from India and Egypt, rubber from the Congo and Amazon, minerals, tea, coffee, and cocoa from tropical regions. Competition between powers encouraged them to seize territory to protect their access and avoid exclusion by rivals’ tariffs. Economic motives did not cause every annexation, but they remain a central driver of expansion.
8. Surplus Capital
Industrial economies produced large profits that investors wanted to place overseas. Business interests believed they could gain higher returns by investing in colonies rather than at home. Investors pressured governments to protect their financial ventures, sometimes pushing them towards conquest. Thinkers like Hobson (1902, look out for him in the Matu exam) argued that imperialism served wealthy financiers, while Lenin (1916) claimed it was the “highest stage of capitalism”. Growing economic rivalry—for example between Britain and Germany—increased tensions and contributed to global competition. Although not the main cause everywhere, surplus capital reinforced the economic logic behind empire-building.
European imperialism after 1870 had many overlapping causes. Below are 8 common causes identified by historians.
1. Scientific and Technological Advances
New technologies made large-scale expansion possible in ways that had not existed before. Steamships and railways allowed Europeans to travel long distances more quickly and move troops and goods inland. The electric telegraph meant governments could communicate with colonies instantly across continents. Medical breakthroughs, especially the use of quinine to treat malaria, allowed Europeans to survive for longer in tropical regions where disease had previously limited expansion. These developments opened up Africa and Asia to explorers like Livingstone and Stanley, and later to missionaries and traders who followed them.
2. Social Darwinist Beliefs
European thinkers increasingly misused Darwin’s theories to justify racial hierarchy. The idea of “survival of the fittest” was distorted to suggest that stronger nations were destined to rule “weaker” races. Many believed in a civilising mission (the “White Man’s Burden”) claiming Europeans had a duty to spread Christianity and Western values. Leaders such as Jules Ferry in France (look out for him in the Matu exam) argued that expansion was necessary to prevent national decline. These ideas made imperialism appear morally justified and even necessary.
3. Popular Nationalism
Mass literacy and urbanisation created a new politically conscious public who were eager consumers of imperial stories. A growing popular press produced newspapers, travel writing, and adventure tales that romanticised empire. Stories of explorers, soldiers, and missionaries fostered national pride and made overseas conquest seem exciting and heroic. Groups such as Germany’s Colonial League encouraged public support for expansion. With more democratic politics, governments increasingly played to these nationalistic expectations.
4. The Ambitions of Politicians
Political leaders saw empire as a way to strengthen their countries and their own position. After France’s humiliating defeat in 1871, leaders sought to rebuild national prestige, shown in the occupation of Tunis (1881–82). Germany’s rapid industrial rise led figures like Chancellor Caprivi to argue that gaining colonies was essential for becoming a “great people”. As democracy expanded, politicians needed popular support, and imperial success appealed to voters. Leaders also used colonial expansion to distract from domestic problems, unite divided societies, and compete with rivals.
5. Strategic Motives
European and Asian powers were also driven by the need to protect vital trade routes and military positions. The Suez Canal (opened 1869) became Britain’s lifeline to India, leading to the occupation of Egypt in 1882 to secure it. Control of ports, coaling stations, and naval bases - such as at the Cape of Good Hope - was essential for global power. In Asia, Japan’s expansion in Korea and northern China in the 1890s forced European powers and Russia to respond, intensifying competition. Strategic concerns often pushed countries to annex territory even when the area had little economic value.
6. Peripheral Factors
Events in the colonies themselves often triggered imperial intervention. The weakness of the Egyptian Khedive’s government allowed Britain to intervene and eventually take control. The collapse of Qing authority in China invited foreign powers to demand treaty ports and spheres of influence. Local political crises - financial breakdowns, revolts, or civil wars - created power vacuums European powers moved to fill. Conversely, strong states like Ethiopia, which defeated Italy at Adowa (1896), could resist European expansion. Imperialism was therefore shaped not only by European motives but also by local conditions.
7. The Search for Markets and Raw Materials
Industrialisation drove a growing appetite for both buyers and resources. Factories in Europe produced more goods than domestic markets could absorb, so countries looked abroad for new customers, especially the vast potential market of China’s 400 million people. Industrial production needed increasing amounts of raw materials: Cotton from India and Egypt, rubber from the Congo and Amazon, minerals, tea, coffee, and cocoa from tropical regions. Competition between powers encouraged them to seize territory to protect their access and avoid exclusion by rivals’ tariffs. Economic motives did not cause every annexation, but they remain a central driver of expansion.
8. Surplus Capital
Industrial economies produced large profits that investors wanted to place overseas. Business interests believed they could gain higher returns by investing in colonies rather than at home. Investors pressured governments to protect their financial ventures, sometimes pushing them towards conquest. Thinkers like Hobson (1902, look out for him in the Matu exam) argued that imperialism served wealthy financiers, while Lenin (1916) claimed it was the “highest stage of capitalism”. Growing economic rivalry—for example between Britain and Germany—increased tensions and contributed to global competition. Although not the main cause everywhere, surplus capital reinforced the economic logic behind empire-building.
Activities
1. Compare and contrast the two maps. Identify at least two similarities between the two maps and four significant differences.
1. Compare and contrast the two maps. Identify at least two similarities between the two maps and four significant differences.
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2. Read through the slides 'What caused the 'New Imperialism'.
Combine the 8 causes so that you are left with only 3 or 4 factors.
Finally, write the introduction to an essay question 'What caused New Imperialism?' Remember to address the question and outline (signpost) the factors have decided to include. |
Extras and extension
Khan Academy and World History Project have a good unit on New Imperialism. The historian Trevor Getz identifies five factors in his explanation of the causes of New Imperialism and concludes that 'the big, global trend that had industrial powers rushing to claim new colonies depended on the interaction of these factors each time a new colony was created. For example, a typical "man-on-the-spot" likely used new weapons (technology) to conquer people he thought were inferior (racism) to expand his business (industrialism/capitalism) and be politically rewarded back home for making his country proud (nationalism).
Khan Academy and World History Project have a good unit on New Imperialism. The historian Trevor Getz identifies five factors in his explanation of the causes of New Imperialism and concludes that 'the big, global trend that had industrial powers rushing to claim new colonies depended on the interaction of these factors each time a new colony was created. For example, a typical "man-on-the-spot" likely used new weapons (technology) to conquer people he thought were inferior (racism) to expand his business (industrialism/capitalism) and be politically rewarded back home for making his country proud (nationalism).
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The introductory film is also worth watching as a good overview of some of the issues you will be encountering in this unit.
For more, see the project's homepage at: https://www.oerproject.com/World-History |
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