Lesson 6 - Total War
The First World War was unlike any previous wars because of the scale and extent of the fighting. Millions of men were mobilised to fight around the world. But the war was not restricted to the battlefield. Civilians were involved in helping to fight the war from the 'home front' in the munitions industry for example and they were also subject to significant control and mobilisation by their governments. Government took direct control over the economy to make sure essential supplies were produced and distributed. Food supplies were strictly controlled and even newspapers were restricting in their reporting of events. In brief this was a 'total war'.
You have studied this topic before (11e) and you will study this topic again (Matu 11). For Double Diploma students this is also an essay topic on IBDP HIstory Paper 2. Before beginning, review your understanding of the transformation of warfare during the industrial revolution that marks the transition from first generation warfare to second generation warfare.
You have studied this topic before (11e) and you will study this topic again (Matu 11). For Double Diploma students this is also an essay topic on IBDP HIstory Paper 2. Before beginning, review your understanding of the transformation of warfare during the industrial revolution that marks the transition from first generation warfare to second generation warfare.
Total war aims
The aims of the powers involved in the fighting made any negotiated peace very difficult to achieve. Germany's aims were outlined in Bethmann-Hollweg's September Memorandum of 1914. The historian Fritz Fischer in the 1960s showed that Germany's goal was one of European wide domination including ethnically cleansing Poles from areas conquered by Germany, as well as the Germanisation of Polish territories by settlement of German colonists. However, all the Great Powers developed ambitious war aims that they were reluctant to give up as more and more sacrifices were made. |
France was determined to regain Alsace-Lorraine and both France and Britain had committed themselves to crushing 'Prussian militarism'. Nationalist propaganda on both sides reinforced nationalist sentiment, justifying the war and demonising the enemy (although not quite dehumanising yet). Governments would have had to do a serious turn around in terms of public opinion if they were to seek a compromise. Yet both sides continued to believe that they could win. As historian P.M.H. Bell writes, 'Only victory would do, and only victory could justify the sacrifices made in the war' (Twentieth Century Europe, 2006).
Full use of weapons and new technology - Second Generation War
As we saw in our previous lessons, the industrial nature of the war resulted in an unprecedented numbers of casualties. Technology developed very quickly during the First World War, partly in attempts to devise new ways of breaking through the lines of trenches. Increasingly powerful artillery was developed, airplanes were used to record enemy positions, tanks and other motorised armoured vehicles were introduced and poison gas shells introduced a frightening new form of 'chemical warfare'. Use your textbook to find out more about the war on land (20-25), at sea (43-45) and in the air (46-49). |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Civilians affected by the war
One of the defining characteristics of total war is that the traditional distinction between soldiers and civilians begins to break down. The effort of fighting a total war brings all sectors of society into the struggle and this results in almost everyone being affected.
The impact of the fighting on civilians
The lives of civilians in all countries were obviously affected by the huge losses of soldiers; all families and villages across Europe faced the consequences of what later became known as the 'lost generation'. But civilians were also affected by the actual fighting, and there were many casualties as a result of the new technologies. Paris was shelled from a distance of 126km by the massive German gun known as 'Long Max', while first the Zeppelins, and later planes, made raids on Britain. British planes also inflicted severe damage on German factories and towns in the last year of the war.
On the Eastern Front, civilians were actually caught up in the battles. For example, Jews - viewed with suspicion by the Russian military - were actively attacked by advancing Russians. Ethnic violence also took place in the Balkans. World War I also saw Europe's first genocide of the 20th century. (The first global genocide took place in German South West Africa with the Herero people). Turkish propaganda at the time presented the Armenians as pro-Russian. Hundreds of thousands of Armenians died from starvation and thirst when the Turks deported them en masse from eastern Anatolia to the Syrian desert and elsewhere in 1915-16. There is dispute over the number of Armenians killed. Armenians say 1.5 million, while the republic of Turkey estimates the total to be 300,000. According to the International Association of Genocide scholars, the total was 'more than a million'. Whether countries recognise this genocide or not is still a matter of diplomatic tension.
One of the defining characteristics of total war is that the traditional distinction between soldiers and civilians begins to break down. The effort of fighting a total war brings all sectors of society into the struggle and this results in almost everyone being affected.
The impact of the fighting on civilians
The lives of civilians in all countries were obviously affected by the huge losses of soldiers; all families and villages across Europe faced the consequences of what later became known as the 'lost generation'. But civilians were also affected by the actual fighting, and there were many casualties as a result of the new technologies. Paris was shelled from a distance of 126km by the massive German gun known as 'Long Max', while first the Zeppelins, and later planes, made raids on Britain. British planes also inflicted severe damage on German factories and towns in the last year of the war.
On the Eastern Front, civilians were actually caught up in the battles. For example, Jews - viewed with suspicion by the Russian military - were actively attacked by advancing Russians. Ethnic violence also took place in the Balkans. World War I also saw Europe's first genocide of the 20th century. (The first global genocide took place in German South West Africa with the Herero people). Turkish propaganda at the time presented the Armenians as pro-Russian. Hundreds of thousands of Armenians died from starvation and thirst when the Turks deported them en masse from eastern Anatolia to the Syrian desert and elsewhere in 1915-16. There is dispute over the number of Armenians killed. Armenians say 1.5 million, while the republic of Turkey estimates the total to be 300,000. According to the International Association of Genocide scholars, the total was 'more than a million'. Whether countries recognise this genocide or not is still a matter of diplomatic tension.
|
|
|
The impact of economic warfare on civilians
Both sides realised the advantages of cutting off supplies to their enemies. They tried to disrupt each other's trade routes, and prevent vital foods and raw materials getting through by laying minefields at sea or attacking merchant ships with submarines or warships. The British blockade had a devastating effect on Germany, causing desperate food shortages and contributing to Germany's defeat in 1918. The average daily calorie input for a civilian adult dropped from around 1,500 in 1915 to below 1,000 in the winter of 1916-17. Germany's use of submarine warfare also subjected British civilians to shortages, and Russia suffered from the blockade of the Dardanelles. Rationing was introduced in many countries. (71-2)
Both sides realised the advantages of cutting off supplies to their enemies. They tried to disrupt each other's trade routes, and prevent vital foods and raw materials getting through by laying minefields at sea or attacking merchant ships with submarines or warships. The British blockade had a devastating effect on Germany, causing desperate food shortages and contributing to Germany's defeat in 1918. The average daily calorie input for a civilian adult dropped from around 1,500 in 1915 to below 1,000 in the winter of 1916-17. Germany's use of submarine warfare also subjected British civilians to shortages, and Russia suffered from the blockade of the Dardanelles. Rationing was introduced in many countries. (71-2)
The home front: civilians as part of the war effort
The war saw the rapid growth of industry in all countries as governments tried to keep up with the production demands of total war. In Britain, France and Germany, these demands also meant women joining the workforce as more and more men left to fight in the war. However, in all countries there was resistance to employing women, and it was not until 1915 that serious recruitment of women into industries began. Even then, there was little enthusiasm from employers and trade unions for women entering the workforce, and in Britain there had to be negotiations to reach agreements on women entering 'men's jobs' in munitions and engineering, e.g. that such arrangements were only to be temporary. The work in munitions in particular was extremely dangerous, with risks of TNT poisoning and accidental explosions. By 1917, one in four war workers was female, leading Joseph Joffre to claim that 'if the women in the war factories stopped for 20 minutes, we should lose the war.' (76-7) |
The changing role of women in the war is a popular subject with the Matu examiners. Some of images above are used as sources in the oral exams. The film below and in the extension section are also worth watching.
|
|
Government power increased
Perhaps the most significant long-term consequence of the First World War was the changed relationship between the state and the citizen. Citizens found themselves being subjected to much greater control from their governments as countries tried to ensure that maximum use was made of human and economic resources. But in turn, citizens came to expect the state to take a more active role in protecting their interests.
In France, a 'state of siege' was proclaimed by President Raymond Poincare, who placed eight departments of government under the control of the commander-in-chief, Joffre, and subject to military law. This number was later increased to 33 departments. In Germany, executive power was given to the deputy commanding generals of Germany's 24 military districts. The Tsar in Russia, meanwhile, used the pro-war atmosphere in 1914 as an opportunity to reassert autocratic powers and rule without the Duma (Russian parliament). In Britain, the government passed the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) in 1914, which gave the government wide-ranging powers to police many aspects of people's daily lives, such as restricting the hours of pub opening (law lasted until 1988) or banning the flying of kites. (p.70)
Government began to play a more important role in the general welfare of its citizens. For example, the government intervened to protect workers (and their unions) from their bosses. In Britain the coal industry and shipping was considered too important to be left to the free market, so it was taken over by the government. There was even intervention in areas such as canteens and child care, and the setting up of various committees such as the Health of Munitions Workers Committee. Rationing of food was taken very seriously and guaranteed a fairer distribution based on need rather than an ability to pay. The diet and health of the poor actually improved as a result of war.
Perhaps the most significant long-term consequence of the First World War was the changed relationship between the state and the citizen. Citizens found themselves being subjected to much greater control from their governments as countries tried to ensure that maximum use was made of human and economic resources. But in turn, citizens came to expect the state to take a more active role in protecting their interests.
In France, a 'state of siege' was proclaimed by President Raymond Poincare, who placed eight departments of government under the control of the commander-in-chief, Joffre, and subject to military law. This number was later increased to 33 departments. In Germany, executive power was given to the deputy commanding generals of Germany's 24 military districts. The Tsar in Russia, meanwhile, used the pro-war atmosphere in 1914 as an opportunity to reassert autocratic powers and rule without the Duma (Russian parliament). In Britain, the government passed the Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) in 1914, which gave the government wide-ranging powers to police many aspects of people's daily lives, such as restricting the hours of pub opening (law lasted until 1988) or banning the flying of kites. (p.70)
Government began to play a more important role in the general welfare of its citizens. For example, the government intervened to protect workers (and their unions) from their bosses. In Britain the coal industry and shipping was considered too important to be left to the free market, so it was taken over by the government. There was even intervention in areas such as canteens and child care, and the setting up of various committees such as the Health of Munitions Workers Committee. Rationing of food was taken very seriously and guaranteed a fairer distribution based on need rather than an ability to pay. The diet and health of the poor actually improved as a result of war.
War also had a significant impact on the economy. In order to pay for the war, Britain increased direct taxation. It also abandoned its 19th-century policy of free trade by adopting tariffs on certain types of imported goods. All countries borrowed immense sums to pay for the war. The Russians, French and Italians borrowed heavily from the British and the Americans; the British also borrowed massive amounts from the USA. The governments of all combatants borrowed from their own people through 'war loans', which would be paid with interest after the war. For example, this was done in Britain through 'tank banks', which capitalised on British enthusiasm for the new weapon by selling government bonds from the back on touring tanks.
|
|
|
In order to motivate the home fronts and keep up morale, governments also invested in propaganda and censorship. Propaganda portrayed the enemy as an inhuman force that must be defeated at all costs and censorship prevented bad news from reaching the public. The British government also created a Ministry of Information, making propaganda a key element of its war policy. Check out your textbook (73-4) for examples to add to your notes and see the International Encyclopedia of the First World War. The British Library also has some very good articles.
Activities
Beyond primary and secondary sources - Experience and explanation, how revealing is a source?
The great Dr. Bronowski once argued that history seeks to bring 'together the experience of the arts and the explanations of science'. History is unusual as an academic subject, in so far as it is considered to be both a human science like economics and an art like literature. In order to make sense of the past we use the methodology of both the artist and the scientist.
The great Dr. Bronowski once argued that history seeks to bring 'together the experience of the arts and the explanations of science'. History is unusual as an academic subject, in so far as it is considered to be both a human science like economics and an art like literature. In order to make sense of the past we use the methodology of both the artist and the scientist.
The differences between primary and secondary sources should be familiar to you. Sources that appear at the top of the diagram are what the past has left behind. They are sources produced by people who lived in the past, that come to us unmediated or unchanged by the passage of time. Sources that appear at the bottom of the diagram are produced by people who are interpreting the past for their own reasons. They are often produced a long time after the events that they are describing.
Sources that appear to the left of the diagram are typically produced through an artistic medium such as poetry or film. Their main value is empathetic and they focus on history as 'experience'. They help us to imagine what it was like to live in the past, to understand why people thought and behaved the way that they did. They help us to empathise but they are very subjective. Sources on the right of the diagram are less imaginative and more factual. They focus on history as 'explanation'. Government statistics concerning changing population based on census data or minutes of meetings taken by government officials are typical of this type of source. Their main value is objectivity. They help us to make generalised conclusions and provide reliable evidence about the facts of what happened.
For more about the 'source matrix' see here.
Sources that appear to the left of the diagram are typically produced through an artistic medium such as poetry or film. Their main value is empathetic and they focus on history as 'experience'. They help us to imagine what it was like to live in the past, to understand why people thought and behaved the way that they did. They help us to empathise but they are very subjective. Sources on the right of the diagram are less imaginative and more factual. They focus on history as 'explanation'. Government statistics concerning changing population based on census data or minutes of meetings taken by government officials are typical of this type of source. Their main value is objectivity. They help us to make generalised conclusions and provide reliable evidence about the facts of what happened.
For more about the 'source matrix' see here.
1. The source matrix.
(a) Make a copy of the source matrix. I will provide you with a copy of the one we make in class.
(b) Explain the difference between sources that are 'scientific' and 'artistic'.
(c) With reference to the examples you saw in class, consider the relative value of both scientific and artistic sources.
(a) Make a copy of the source matrix. I will provide you with a copy of the one we make in class.
(b) Explain the difference between sources that are 'scientific' and 'artistic'.
(c) With reference to the examples you saw in class, consider the relative value of both scientific and artistic sources.
2. Using the model to the right, produce a mind-map/spider diagram to explain the full extent of the nature of WW1 as a 'total war'. Your textbook has a well illustrated section on the home front, on propaganda, the role of women, rationing etc. pages 66-77. You will revisit this topic next year when we compare the Second World War to the First, both as total wars. Make sure you do a good job. You could use Candelaria's as a basis to design your own. |
Extras and extension
|
The World History Project has an article on World War One as a total war by Amy Elizabeth Robinson. She argues that “total war” includes four things: Mobilisation, refusal to compromise, the blurring of roles between soldier and civilians, and total control of society.
|