Lesson 3 - Centralisation of states and enlightened monarchs
This is still background on the American Revolution...
Despite what nation states would like you to believe, nations have not existed for very long. The modern nation state was largely created in the 19th century and the concept of nationalism as we understand it today, was also invented at that time.
Despite what nation states would like you to believe, nations have not existed for very long. The modern nation state was largely created in the 19th century and the concept of nationalism as we understand it today, was also invented at that time.
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Look at this fantastic tamelapse film of changing European frontiers. If you jump forward in time to the middle ages, you'll notice that very few of the nation states that exist today existed then. And even those that did exist had frontiers very different to today.
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So what caused the creation of modern states?
To understand the origins of modern states, we need to look back again at the late middle ages. At the time of Colombus and Pizarro (see earlier lesson) the world was changing. New ideas associated with the Renaissance, science and the Enlightenment were spreading at the same time as new trade was opening up between regions of the world, most notably the Americas. (see next lesson). Imagine a world where most wealth comes from owning land, as we have seen that’s how feudalism worked. But in the 15th and 16th century, people started making lots of money through trade—buying and selling goods from places like Asia, Africa, and the Americas. This is called (merchant) capitalism. We can summarise this transformation with four reasons:
To understand the origins of modern states, we need to look back again at the late middle ages. At the time of Colombus and Pizarro (see earlier lesson) the world was changing. New ideas associated with the Renaissance, science and the Enlightenment were spreading at the same time as new trade was opening up between regions of the world, most notably the Americas. (see next lesson). Imagine a world where most wealth comes from owning land, as we have seen that’s how feudalism worked. But in the 15th and 16th century, people started making lots of money through trade—buying and selling goods from places like Asia, Africa, and the Americas. This is called (merchant) capitalism. We can summarise this transformation with four reasons:
Economic reasons - Under feudalism, wealth came mainly from land and agricultural labour. Lords collected rents and services from peasants, while kings depended on feudal dues. From the fifteenth century, this changed as long-distance trade expanded. Merchants made large profits from goods such as spices, wool, sugar and silver. Kings realised that trade could be taxed more reliably than feudal labour. For example, the monarchs of England raised money through customs duties on wool and overseas trade, while Spain benefited from silver arriving from the Americas. Towns such as Antwerp became major trading centres. This steady income allowed kings to pay officials, build armies and reduce their dependence on feudal lords. Economic power therefore shifted away from the nobility and towards central governments.
Social reasons - Feudal society depended on peasants staying on the land and providing labour for their lord. From the fifteenth century, this began to break down as towns and cities grew. Places such as Antwerp and London expanded rapidly due to trade and manufacturing. Towns offered paid work, freedom from feudal obligations and better opportunities. As peasants moved to towns, feudal lords lost workers and income. Kings often supported towns by granting charters, legal protection and limited self-government in exchange for taxes and loyalty. This weakened the social power of the nobility and strengthened monarchs, who increasingly ruled over populations that were no longer tied to feudal obligations but directly connected to the central state.
Military reasons - The feudal system depended on labour service. Lords provided knights and soldiers as part of their obligations to the king. Over time, this system broke down. Fighting became more professional and more expensive. Kings no longer wanted unreliable feudal forces that only served for limited periods. Instead, rulers increasingly hired paid soldiers, or mercenaries. Famous examples include Swiss mercenaries from Switzerland, who fought across Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. These soldiers were well trained, disciplined and loyal to whoever paid them. At the same time, gunpowder weapons such as cannons and muskets reduced the importance of armoured knights. Because mercenary armies and new weapons were expensive, only kings with strong tax systems could afford them. This ended the military role of feudal lords and placed control of warfare firmly in the hands of central governments.
Cultural reasons - From the late Middle Ages, education and ideas began to change. Universities such as University of Bologna, University of Paris and University of Oxford trained lawyers, administrators and scholars who worked for kings rather than feudal lords. These officials helped monarchs govern more efficiently using written laws, records and taxation systems. The Scientific Revolution encouraged belief in reason, evidence and organisation. During the Enlightenment, thinkers argued that government should be rational, ordered and centralised. These ideas supported strong states with clear laws and professional administrations, weakening older feudal traditions based on custom, privilege and inherited authority.
Social reasons - Feudal society depended on peasants staying on the land and providing labour for their lord. From the fifteenth century, this began to break down as towns and cities grew. Places such as Antwerp and London expanded rapidly due to trade and manufacturing. Towns offered paid work, freedom from feudal obligations and better opportunities. As peasants moved to towns, feudal lords lost workers and income. Kings often supported towns by granting charters, legal protection and limited self-government in exchange for taxes and loyalty. This weakened the social power of the nobility and strengthened monarchs, who increasingly ruled over populations that were no longer tied to feudal obligations but directly connected to the central state.
Military reasons - The feudal system depended on labour service. Lords provided knights and soldiers as part of their obligations to the king. Over time, this system broke down. Fighting became more professional and more expensive. Kings no longer wanted unreliable feudal forces that only served for limited periods. Instead, rulers increasingly hired paid soldiers, or mercenaries. Famous examples include Swiss mercenaries from Switzerland, who fought across Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. These soldiers were well trained, disciplined and loyal to whoever paid them. At the same time, gunpowder weapons such as cannons and muskets reduced the importance of armoured knights. Because mercenary armies and new weapons were expensive, only kings with strong tax systems could afford them. This ended the military role of feudal lords and placed control of warfare firmly in the hands of central governments.
Cultural reasons - From the late Middle Ages, education and ideas began to change. Universities such as University of Bologna, University of Paris and University of Oxford trained lawyers, administrators and scholars who worked for kings rather than feudal lords. These officials helped monarchs govern more efficiently using written laws, records and taxation systems. The Scientific Revolution encouraged belief in reason, evidence and organisation. During the Enlightenment, thinkers argued that government should be rational, ordered and centralised. These ideas supported strong states with clear laws and professional administrations, weakening older feudal traditions based on custom, privilege and inherited authority.
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Centralisation in states throughout Europe meant that law making was carried out in the capital city and these laws were applied and enforced throughout the kingdom. Trade flowed more freely across the kingdom as standard laws reduced local tolls, taxes and regulations.
Powerful monarchs sought to consolidate their power by taking over the territories of weaker neighbours and centralising power. Sometimes though diplomacy, but often through war, in the late 15th and early 16th century the modern nation states began to take on a recognisable shape. Sometimes though diplomacy, but often through war, in the late 15th and early 16th century the modern nation states began to take on a recognisable shape. |
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Activity 1 - Spider diagram explaining the rise of centralised state.
This activity is to be done using mindmapping software. You should refer to and explain the four reasons mentioned in the text above.
Step 1 - In the centre of the diagram write 'Merchant capitalism and the rise of the centralised state'. From the centre, draw four main branches labelled: Economic, Social, Military and Cultural. For each of the four branches explain the change that happened with examples that sub-branch off from each of the four main reasons.
Step 2 - Now look at your spider diagram and think about how the four themes are connected. Draw lines between the branches (Economic, Social, Military, Cultural) wherever you think they influence each other. Economic → Military: Money from trade allowed kings to pay for mercenary armies and new weapons.
Step 3 - Which of the four themes now has the most connections leading to it? Which theme seems to influence the others the most?
Explain your answer in one or two sentences.
Step 1 - In the centre of the diagram write 'Merchant capitalism and the rise of the centralised state'. From the centre, draw four main branches labelled: Economic, Social, Military and Cultural. For each of the four branches explain the change that happened with examples that sub-branch off from each of the four main reasons.
Step 2 - Now look at your spider diagram and think about how the four themes are connected. Draw lines between the branches (Economic, Social, Military, Cultural) wherever you think they influence each other. Economic → Military: Money from trade allowed kings to pay for mercenary armies and new weapons.
Step 3 - Which of the four themes now has the most connections leading to it? Which theme seems to influence the others the most?
Explain your answer in one or two sentences.
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What happened when these states went to war with each other?
As we have seen earlier this year, there were many religiously motivated wars in the 17th century but the most significant was the Thirty Years' War. The Thirty Years' War was a war fought primarily in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648. One of the longest and most destructive conflicts in human history, as well as the deadliest European religious war in history, it resulted in eight million deaths. Initially a war between various Protestant and Catholic states in the fragmented Holy Roman Empire, the war became less about religion and more of a continuation of the France–Habsburg rivalry for European political pre-eminence. The Thirty Years' War devastated entire regions, with famine and disease resulting in high mortality in the populations of the German and Italian states. It was one of the reasons why European monarchs fought more limited wars in the century that followed. |
(Below) Europe in 1600
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Peace of Westphalia (1648)
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The Thirty Years' War ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648). The war altered the previous political order of European powers. Perhaps the most significant political consequence was the rise of France under the Bourbon Kings. The Treaty of Westphalia not only established the right of monarchs to decide the official religion of their territory but also the modern concept of national sovereignty. This is the idea that there is no higher power than the power of the individual nation state and that no other body or state can have authority over what goes on within the state. The state is independent. Maybe someone should remind Donald Trump?
The film opposite is funny - you might recognise some of the characters - watch it. |
Enlightened monarchs
Most European countries in the 17th century were absolute monarchies, Britain, Switzerland and the Netherlands were notable exceptions. Absolute monarchy is a form of monarchy in which one ruler has supreme authority and where that authority is not restricted by any written laws, legislature (parliament), or customs. Many European monarchs, claimed supreme autocratic power by divine right, and that their subjects had no rights to limit their power. This is what political scientists call 'traditional authoritarianism', because power was passed on from father to son, through time and through one family. In some European countries, this form of government lasted until the 20th century. As an inherited power, traditional authoritarianism can be distinguished from modern authoritarianism, which emerged after World War 1 with the rise of authoritarian political parties, such as the Nazis in Germany. There are still some absolute monarchies in the world today, mainly in the Middle East.
As a form of government, they emerged in Europe in the 16th century as new nation states sought to centralise and strengthen their power against enemies abroad and opponents within. Typically this meant imposing one religious faith and weakening towns, regional nobility and representative assemblies. In some countries, this failed as Britain became a constitutional monarchy. In other countries, like France, Prussia (northern Germany) and Russia, it succeeded.
In the 18th century a number of absolute monarchs came under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment and they sought to rule according rational and scientific principles of good governance. These monarchs have become known as enlightened despots. They enjoyed the despotic power of absolute monarchs but ruled with the general interests of the nation in mind.
As a form of government, they emerged in Europe in the 16th century as new nation states sought to centralise and strengthen their power against enemies abroad and opponents within. Typically this meant imposing one religious faith and weakening towns, regional nobility and representative assemblies. In some countries, this failed as Britain became a constitutional monarchy. In other countries, like France, Prussia (northern Germany) and Russia, it succeeded.
In the 18th century a number of absolute monarchs came under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment and they sought to rule according rational and scientific principles of good governance. These monarchs have become known as enlightened despots. They enjoyed the despotic power of absolute monarchs but ruled with the general interests of the nation in mind.
Activity 2 - Absolute Monarchs - Weakest link balloon debate - Who was the greatest absolute monarch?
There are two aspects to this assessment. You will begin by producing a standard piece of 'research' about one of the absolute monarchs listed below. These monarchs will be allocated randomly. These accounts will be relatively short - 500-600 words - a highly selective, almost hagiographic* summary of the life and achievements of your allocated monarch. It is very important that this is written in your own words.
The Monarchs
There are two aspects to this assessment. You will begin by producing a standard piece of 'research' about one of the absolute monarchs listed below. These monarchs will be allocated randomly. These accounts will be relatively short - 500-600 words - a highly selective, almost hagiographic* summary of the life and achievements of your allocated monarch. It is very important that this is written in your own words.
The Monarchs
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* hagiography is the life of a saint, some one who lived an unnaturally perfect life.
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Having completed your research account you then need to prepare for the debate in pairs. Each member of the class will represent a monarch and speak on their behalf. As in all 'balloon debates', the idea is that the balloon is sinking fast and cannot carry the weight of all the people (the absolute monarchs). Each monarch will need to make the case for why they should be saved. In this balloon debate we are also going to incorporate the rules of the popular TV show The Weakest Link.
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We are going to have a series of rounds. At the end of each round, all the monarchs will vote to jettison one least impressive absolute monarch. In each round you will only be allowed to make one point, the one reason why you should be saved. You will not be allowed to repeat this point in future rounds, so you must prepare enough points (9) if you want to win.
As well as a game of history, it is also a game of performance and strategy. It is a game of performance because what matters is how well the point is made. It is a game of strategy because you need to decide which are your strongest and weakest points. For example, do you make your strongest points in the early rounds when your chances of survival are greatest or do you save them for when the going gets tough? Watch some of this film (right) in order to get an idea of how it will work. |
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