Lesson 6 - Italian Unification - 1848-70
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You could do worse than to start with an overview from JG.
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The story of Italian Unification is relatively straightforward to understand, and can very much be told as a story. There are heroes and bloody battles, drama and intrigues, scandals and betrayals and everything else you'd expect from a Netflix docudrama. You basically have to learn the story and acquire enough facts to be able to explain the whole thing in about 7 minutes. So I have decided to tell the story in 7 steps. What I've written below is a little too much for what you need, so you need to construct your own shortened story. That is your main activity today.
1. Piedmont after 1848 – The New Hope
After the failed revolutions of 1848, Piedmont alone kept the dream of a liberal Italy alive.
The roots of Italian nationalism stretched back to the early nineteenth century. Under Napoleon, the Italian states had been briefly united and modernised, spreading ideas of equality before the law and secular government. After 1815, the Congress of Vienna restored Austria’s dominance, but nationalist ideas persisted through secret societies such as the Carbonari and through writers like Giuseppe Mazzini, who founded Young Italy in 1831. These movements failed to overthrow foreign control, yet they kept the idea of Il Risorgimento—the rebirth of a free and united Italy—alive among students, professionals, and soldiers. When the revolutions of 1848 erupted, liberals and nationalists across the peninsula demanded constitutions and independence from Austria and the Pope. Their failure, crushed by Austrian armies and betrayed by divided leadership, left many disillusioned. Yet one state—Piedmont-Sardinia—survived with its constitutional system intact.
Under King Charles Albert, Piedmont had granted the Statuto Albertino, a liberal constitution guaranteeing limited representative government. After Charles Albert’s defeat and abdication in 1849, his son Victor Emmanuel II chose to keep this constitution. This made Piedmont the only Italian state where reform and monarchy coexisted. While other rulers restored censorship and absolutism, Piedmont maintained a free press, a parliament, and a modern army. In the dark aftermath of 1848, many Italian patriots now looked to Piedmont as the symbol of national survival and the most likely base from which unity could one day be achieved.
After the failed revolutions of 1848, Piedmont alone kept the dream of a liberal Italy alive.
The roots of Italian nationalism stretched back to the early nineteenth century. Under Napoleon, the Italian states had been briefly united and modernised, spreading ideas of equality before the law and secular government. After 1815, the Congress of Vienna restored Austria’s dominance, but nationalist ideas persisted through secret societies such as the Carbonari and through writers like Giuseppe Mazzini, who founded Young Italy in 1831. These movements failed to overthrow foreign control, yet they kept the idea of Il Risorgimento—the rebirth of a free and united Italy—alive among students, professionals, and soldiers. When the revolutions of 1848 erupted, liberals and nationalists across the peninsula demanded constitutions and independence from Austria and the Pope. Their failure, crushed by Austrian armies and betrayed by divided leadership, left many disillusioned. Yet one state—Piedmont-Sardinia—survived with its constitutional system intact.
Under King Charles Albert, Piedmont had granted the Statuto Albertino, a liberal constitution guaranteeing limited representative government. After Charles Albert’s defeat and abdication in 1849, his son Victor Emmanuel II chose to keep this constitution. This made Piedmont the only Italian state where reform and monarchy coexisted. While other rulers restored censorship and absolutism, Piedmont maintained a free press, a parliament, and a modern army. In the dark aftermath of 1848, many Italian patriots now looked to Piedmont as the symbol of national survival and the most likely base from which unity could one day be achieved.
2. Cavour’s Modernisation - Realpolitik
Cavour transformed Piedmont into a modern state strong enough to lead Italian unification.
In 1852, Count Camillo di Cavour became Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. A skilled politician and realist, he believed that Italy could not be united through revolutions or romantic idealism but through economic strength, diplomacy, and war when necessary. This is known as Realpolitik. It describes a pragmatic, results-driven approach to politics, where decisions are based on practical needs and power rather than on ideals or moral principles.
Cavour transformed Piedmont into a modern state strong enough to lead Italian unification.
In 1852, Count Camillo di Cavour became Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. A skilled politician and realist, he believed that Italy could not be united through revolutions or romantic idealism but through economic strength, diplomacy, and war when necessary. This is known as Realpolitik. It describes a pragmatic, results-driven approach to politics, where decisions are based on practical needs and power rather than on ideals or moral principles.
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Cavour set out to modernise Piedmont. He encouraged industry, banking, and trade, negotiated free-trade treaties with Britain and France, and rapidly expanded the railway network. Turin became one of the most developed cities in Italy. At the same time, he strengthened the army and administration, ensuring Piedmont could act like a European power. Cavour was a liberal but not a democrat; he valued constitutional monarchy and order over mass politics. By the mid-1850s, Piedmont stood out as the most advanced, stable, and respected of the Italian states. Cavour had created both the economic foundations and international credibility that would soon make Piedmont the driving force of Italian unification.
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3. The Crimean War (1853–1856)
Cavour used a distant conflict to win allies and raise Piedmont’s status in Europe. The Crimean War began when Russia occupied Ottoman territory in the Balkans, claiming to defend Orthodox Christians. In truth, the Tsar wanted warm-water access to the Mediterranean through the Black Sea and the Dardanelles, which were controlled by the Ottoman Empire. Britain saw this as a direct threat to its trade routes to India, while France sought to strengthen its own position in Europe and the Middle East. Both Britain and France supported the Ottoman Empire to contain Russian expansion. Although Piedmont had no direct stake in the war, Cavour recognised a diplomatic opportunity. By sending 18,000 troops to fight alongside the Western powers, Piedmont appeared as a modern and reliable ally. At the Paris Peace Conference (1856), Cavour gained a seat among Europe’s major powers and used it to denounce Austrian control of northern Italy. The war brought Piedmont little military glory, but it raised its international standing and left Austria increasingly isolated, paving the way for future unification. |
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4. The War of 1859
Cavour and Napoleon III joined forces to drive Austria out of northern Italy.
Cavour’s goal after the Crimean War was clear: unite northern Italy under Piedmontese leadership by defeating Austria. He knew this required foreign help. In 1858, he met Napoleon III of France at Plombières, where the two leaders secretly agreed that France would aid Piedmont in a future war with Austria. In return, France would receive Savoy and Nice. This is shown in the cartoon below, Les deux Gargantua by Casimiro Teja, published in the Turin newspaper Il Fischietto around 1860.
Cavour and Napoleon III joined forces to drive Austria out of northern Italy.
Cavour’s goal after the Crimean War was clear: unite northern Italy under Piedmontese leadership by defeating Austria. He knew this required foreign help. In 1858, he met Napoleon III of France at Plombières, where the two leaders secretly agreed that France would aid Piedmont in a future war with Austria. In return, France would receive Savoy and Nice. This is shown in the cartoon below, Les deux Gargantua by Casimiro Teja, published in the Turin newspaper Il Fischietto around 1860.
The plan worked. Cavour provoked Austria by mobilising Piedmont’s army, and Austria declared war in April 1859. The French joined the fight, and together they won major victories at Magenta and Solferino in June. The battles were bloody, revealing the horrors of modern warfare and inspiring Henri Dunant to found the Red Cross. (see work in 11e). Fearing Prussian intervention and public opposition at home, Napoleon made peace with Austria at Villafranca without consulting Cavour. The result was mixed: Lombardy was given to Piedmont, but Venetia remained Austrian. Even so, Piedmont had expanded and Austria’s power in Italy had weakened. Cavour had proved that war and diplomacy together could bring Italy closer to unification.
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5. Garibaldi and the South (1860)
Garibaldi’s daring campaign united the south with the north and made unification unstoppable. While Cavour pursued diplomacy, Giuseppe Garibaldi relied on action. In 1860, a local revolt in Sicily against Bourbon rule gave him an opening. With only 1,000 volunteers, known as the Redshirts, Garibaldi sailed from Genoa, captured Palermo after fierce fighting, and soon controlled the island. Crossing to the mainland, he marched north and seized Naples by September. Garibaldi’s campaign was dramatic and popular, but it worried Cavour. A republican at heart, Garibaldi might proclaim a republic or provoke foreign intervention from France or Austria. To prevent this, Piedmontese troops entered the Papal States, defeating papal forces at Castelfidardo before meeting Garibaldi near Teano. There, Garibaldi greeted Victor Emmanuel II as “King of Italy” and handed over his conquests peacefully. A national vote confirmed the annexation of the south to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, now effectively the Kingdom of Italy (1861). Garibaldi’s bravery and idealism inspired Europe, but it was Cavour’s caution and diplomacy that ensured unity came under a constitutional monarchy rather than a revolutionary republic. |
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Rhyd-y-car Terrace, Merthyr (Reconstruction of 1895)
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Garibaldi's visit to London in 1864
This has nothing to do with the unification but it does offer us a fascinating insight into the development of popular culture and national news media in England during the industrial revolution. (Matu 4) In 1864, an estimated half a million people came on the streets of London to greet Garibaldi. The whole country went Garibaldi crazy (see photos). He was the world's first popular celebrity, a genuine superstar made by the media. The impact of Garibaldi is still to be found in Britain today. Nottingham Forest F.C. chose their club colours from the uniform worn by Garibaldi's Redshirts, there are still at least eight pubs named after him and the Garibaldi biscuit is a personal favourite of mine.
See here here for the original Guardian report from 1864. |
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6. Completing Unification: Venetia and Rome
Foreign wars in the 1860s completed Italy’s map but left deep divisions behind.
After 1861, Italy was a kingdom in name but still incomplete. Venetia remained under Austrian rule, and Rome was protected by French troops defending the Pope. The new Italian government needed foreign conflicts to finish the process. In 1866, when Prussia went to war with Austria, Prime Minister La Marmora allied Italy with Prussia. Although Italian armies were defeated at Custoza and Lissa, Prussia’s victory at Königgrätz forced Austria to give up Venetia, which was handed to Italy in the peace settlement. The final step came in 1870. During the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III withdrew his garrison from Rome to defend France. Seizing the opportunity, the Italian army entered the city in September 1870, after brief resistance from papal troops. Rome was proclaimed the capital of the new kingdom. Unification was now complete, but tensions remained. The Pope refused to recognise the Italian state, and many Italians still felt stronger loyalties to region, class, or religion than to the new nation. Italy had been united by diplomacy and war, yet true national unity would take much longer to achieve.
Foreign wars in the 1860s completed Italy’s map but left deep divisions behind.
After 1861, Italy was a kingdom in name but still incomplete. Venetia remained under Austrian rule, and Rome was protected by French troops defending the Pope. The new Italian government needed foreign conflicts to finish the process. In 1866, when Prussia went to war with Austria, Prime Minister La Marmora allied Italy with Prussia. Although Italian armies were defeated at Custoza and Lissa, Prussia’s victory at Königgrätz forced Austria to give up Venetia, which was handed to Italy in the peace settlement. The final step came in 1870. During the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III withdrew his garrison from Rome to defend France. Seizing the opportunity, the Italian army entered the city in September 1870, after brief resistance from papal troops. Rome was proclaimed the capital of the new kingdom. Unification was now complete, but tensions remained. The Pope refused to recognise the Italian state, and many Italians still felt stronger loyalties to region, class, or religion than to the new nation. Italy had been united by diplomacy and war, yet true national unity would take much longer to achieve.
7. After Unification: Making Italians
Political unity came in 1870, but social and cultural unity lagged behind.
The newly created Kingdom of Italy faced enormous challenges. The unification had been achieved through war and diplomacy, not through popular participation, and the sense of national identity remained weak. The famous saying of the statesman Massimo d’Azeglio summed up the problem: “We have made Italy; now we must make Italians.” The country was deeply divided. The north was more industrial and educated, while the south remained rural and poor. Heavy taxes, military conscription, and land reform caused unrest, leading to a wave of violent brigandage in the early 1860s. Many southerners felt they had simply exchanged Bourbon rule for Piedmontese domination. Other divisions also persisted. The Catholic Church opposed the new liberal state, and Pope Pius IX ordered Catholics not to take part in national politics. Regional dialects, poor transport, and high illiteracy made communication and administration difficult. Despite these problems, the new kingdom gradually began to build the foundations of a modern nation. Railways expanded, education spread, and a national army and bureaucracy helped to unify the state. By the end of the century, Italy was more stable, but the dream of a fully united and equal nation remained unfinished.
Political unity came in 1870, but social and cultural unity lagged behind.
The newly created Kingdom of Italy faced enormous challenges. The unification had been achieved through war and diplomacy, not through popular participation, and the sense of national identity remained weak. The famous saying of the statesman Massimo d’Azeglio summed up the problem: “We have made Italy; now we must make Italians.” The country was deeply divided. The north was more industrial and educated, while the south remained rural and poor. Heavy taxes, military conscription, and land reform caused unrest, leading to a wave of violent brigandage in the early 1860s. Many southerners felt they had simply exchanged Bourbon rule for Piedmontese domination. Other divisions also persisted. The Catholic Church opposed the new liberal state, and Pope Pius IX ordered Catholics not to take part in national politics. Regional dialects, poor transport, and high illiteracy made communication and administration difficult. Despite these problems, the new kingdom gradually began to build the foundations of a modern nation. Railways expanded, education spread, and a national army and bureaucracy helped to unify the state. By the end of the century, Italy was more stable, but the dream of a fully united and equal nation remained unfinished.
Activity
Matu Oral Activity: “The Making of Italy, 1848–1870”
Last lesson you worked on an IB style assessment. This week you will prepare for a 5 minute oral to explain how Italy was unified through seven key stages, showing the link between nationalism, the industrial revolution and war. This is Matu, so remembering content is important. Your first task is to remember the chronology of events. Try a mnemonic to help you.
P – Piedmont after 1848 – The constitutional foundation
C – Cavour’s modernisation – Building strength
C – Crimean War – Diplomatic entry
W – War of 1859 – Victory over Austria
G – Garibaldi and the South – Popular unification
C – Completing unification – Venetia and Rome added
A – After unification – “Making Italians”
Simplified memory line:
“Please Carry Cavour’s War-Gained Crown, Amici.”
Guiding Question - How did nationalism, industrial development, and war contribute to Italian unification between 1848 and 1870?
You will give a 4–5 minute oral presentation explaining how these three forces combined to unite Italy.
Show that you can:
Planning sheet
Complete a version of the following table to help structure your oral. The following contains a suggestion of what you might include not what you have to include. Download a digital version.
Matu Oral Activity: “The Making of Italy, 1848–1870”
Last lesson you worked on an IB style assessment. This week you will prepare for a 5 minute oral to explain how Italy was unified through seven key stages, showing the link between nationalism, the industrial revolution and war. This is Matu, so remembering content is important. Your first task is to remember the chronology of events. Try a mnemonic to help you.
P – Piedmont after 1848 – The constitutional foundation
C – Cavour’s modernisation – Building strength
C – Crimean War – Diplomatic entry
W – War of 1859 – Victory over Austria
G – Garibaldi and the South – Popular unification
C – Completing unification – Venetia and Rome added
A – After unification – “Making Italians”
Simplified memory line:
“Please Carry Cavour’s War-Gained Crown, Amici.”
Guiding Question - How did nationalism, industrial development, and war contribute to Italian unification between 1848 and 1870?
You will give a 4–5 minute oral presentation explaining how these three forces combined to unite Italy.
Show that you can:
- Describe major events clearly and in order.
- Explain how nationalism, industrial progress, and war each played a role.
- End with an evaluation of which factor was most decisive.
Planning sheet
Complete a version of the following table to help structure your oral. The following contains a suggestion of what you might include not what you have to include. Download a digital version.
Stage |
Main Developments |
Dominant Factor(s) |
1. Piedmont after 1848 |
Piedmont survives the 1848 revolutions with its liberal constitution (Statuto Albertino) intact. Under Victor Emmanuel II, it becomes a constitutional monarchy and a rallying point for Italian patriots. |
Nationalism was strong. Piedmont became the symbol of Italian liberty and national survival after 1848. |
2. Cavour’s Modernisation |
Cavour modernises Piedmont from 1852: expanding railways, trade, and banking, strengthening the army, and building an efficient state. |
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3. Crimean War (1853–56) |
Piedmont joins Britain and France against Russia; Cavour gains a seat at the Paris Peace Conference and raises Piedmont’s diplomatic status. |
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4. War of 1859 |
Cavour’s alliance with Napoleon III (Plombières)leads to victory over Austria and the annexation of Lombardy. |
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5. Garibaldi and the South (1860) |
Garibaldi’s “Thousand” capture Sicily and Naples and hand them to Victor Emmanuel II, creating a united kingdom. |
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6. Completing Unification (1866–70) |
Venetia gained through alliance with Prussia; Rome occupied after French defeat in 1870. |
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7. After Unification |
Italy is politically united but socially and economically divided between north and south; loyalty to region and Church remains stronger than to the new nation. |
Oral Structure
Record your oral as an .mp3. (e.g. Voice Memo) and upload with a copy of your planning sheet to OneNote - Matu 5, Lesson 6
Follow-Up Questions - After your presentation, you may be asked one of the following:
How did realpolitik influence Cavour’s strategy?
Was unification achieved by the people or for the people?
Which of the four leaders made the most important contribution, but who do you think has the biggest statue?
Why did national unity remain incomplete after 1870?
- Introduction (30 seconds) - Begin with Italy in 1848: divided, dominated by Austria, and inspired by earlier nationalist movements. Introduce your three key forces: nationalism, industrialisation, and war. Explain that you will trace these themes through the seven stages of unification.
- Main Body (3–4 minutes) - Move through each stage in order. Describe what happened and explain which of the three forces was most important at that moment. Use linking phrases such as as a result, this led to, meanwhile, and in contrast.
- Conclusion (30 seconds) - Summarise how nationalism, industry, and war worked together to unify Italy. Decide which was most decisive overall and justify your opinion.
Record your oral as an .mp3. (e.g. Voice Memo) and upload with a copy of your planning sheet to OneNote - Matu 5, Lesson 6
Follow-Up Questions - After your presentation, you may be asked one of the following:
How did realpolitik influence Cavour’s strategy?
Was unification achieved by the people or for the people?
Which of the four leaders made the most important contribution, but who do you think has the biggest statue?
Why did national unity remain incomplete after 1870?