Lesson 1 - Why was Britain the first country to have an Industrial Revolution?
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What was the Industrial Revolution?
The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and transport had a profound effect on the socio-economic and cultural conditions starting in the United Kingdom, and then subsequently spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The onset of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in human history. Almost every aspect of daily life was eventually influenced in some way, from where people lived and worked to how people viewed the world and their life expectations. |
Starting in the later part of the 18th century there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal. Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways. The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilisation of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.
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The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century enabled the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. The impact of this change on society was enormous.
Why was Europe first?
One question of interest to historians is why the industrial revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity or the Middle Ages. Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes (especially the Scientific Revolution in Europe), "modern" government, "modern" work attitudes and culture.
Some historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity, and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism). Whereas the Europeans believed that the universe was governed by rational and eternal laws, in the East it was more generally believed that the universe was in constant flux and, for Buddhists and Taoists, not capable of being rationally understood.
Other recent historians like Jared Steel have suggested the physical geography of Europe and the existence of small rival nation states made all the difference. See this interesting extract and fuller version from Jared Steel's bestselling Guns, Germs and Steel and this series of documentary films.
One question of interest to historians is why the industrial revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity or the Middle Ages. Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes (especially the Scientific Revolution in Europe), "modern" government, "modern" work attitudes and culture.
Some historians such as David Landes and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity, and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism). Whereas the Europeans believed that the universe was governed by rational and eternal laws, in the East it was more generally believed that the universe was in constant flux and, for Buddhists and Taoists, not capable of being rationally understood.
Other recent historians like Jared Steel have suggested the physical geography of Europe and the existence of small rival nation states made all the difference. See this interesting extract and fuller version from Jared Steel's bestselling Guns, Germs and Steel and this series of documentary films.
Why Britain?
Economic historians are agreed about very little in this area, but on one point there is unanimity, no one reason by itself explains why Britain, a fairly remote group of islands in the north-west corner of Europe, became the world's first industrial nation. We can, however, identify a number of factors that gave Britain an advantage. The work we did last year on the early development of capitalism is very useful as background to the Industrial Revolution.
Economic historians are agreed about very little in this area, but on one point there is unanimity, no one reason by itself explains why Britain, a fairly remote group of islands in the north-west corner of Europe, became the world's first industrial nation. We can, however, identify a number of factors that gave Britain an advantage. The work we did last year on the early development of capitalism is very useful as background to the Industrial Revolution.
Timeline of British Industrial Development
1733: John Kay's 'Flying Shuttle' invented; it increases the speed of textile weaving machines
1767: James Hargreaves's 'Spinning Jenny' invented; it greatly increases the output per person
1769: Richard Arkwright's 'Water Frame'
1779: Samuel Crompton takes out a patent for spinning by 'mule'
1780s: 477 inventors' patents registered (in the 1710s there had been only 38) Value of exports from Britain (mostly manufactured goods) top £10 million for the first time (in the 1700s they had been less than £5 million)
1782: James Watt's rotary steam-engine invented; it enabled concentration of power away from fast-flowing streams and thus aided growth of industrial towns
1783-4: Henry Cort's 'puddling' process allowed coal, rather than charcoal, to be the main fuel used in iron refining
1786: Edmund Cartwright's power loom invented; it promises to increase speed of weaving, but is not widely introduced to textile areas until 1820s
1802: The value of exports of cotton goods exceeds those of woollen ones for the first time
Timeline of British Industrial Development
1733: John Kay's 'Flying Shuttle' invented; it increases the speed of textile weaving machines
1767: James Hargreaves's 'Spinning Jenny' invented; it greatly increases the output per person
1769: Richard Arkwright's 'Water Frame'
1779: Samuel Crompton takes out a patent for spinning by 'mule'
1780s: 477 inventors' patents registered (in the 1710s there had been only 38) Value of exports from Britain (mostly manufactured goods) top £10 million for the first time (in the 1700s they had been less than £5 million)
1782: James Watt's rotary steam-engine invented; it enabled concentration of power away from fast-flowing streams and thus aided growth of industrial towns
1783-4: Henry Cort's 'puddling' process allowed coal, rather than charcoal, to be the main fuel used in iron refining
1786: Edmund Cartwright's power loom invented; it promises to increase speed of weaving, but is not widely introduced to textile areas until 1820s
1802: The value of exports of cotton goods exceeds those of woollen ones for the first time
Nine reasons why Britain was first.
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Earlier economic development: The eighteenth century had seen remarkable advances in both trade and industry, resulting in rising incomes and the capacity for many people to consume manufactured goods.
Geography: Britain is a small country with many navigable rivers, good mineral deposits and relatively few huge natural obstacles to movement of trade and people. Water power, crucial for technological development, is abundant. Diversity: Britain has a diverse climate, enabling good-quality wheat to be grown in the south and east and animals to be nourished in lush western pastures. Diversity aids growing specialisation in agriculture, while Lancashire's famously mild and wet climate was conducive to the processing of raw cotton. |
Rising population growth: Britain's population almost doubled in the course of the eighteenth century and the growth was most marked towards the end of the century. More people in society mean more opportunities for production and consumption.
The profitability of overseas trade and the advantage of empire: Britain had a healthy lead over European competitors in overseas trade, particularly in India and the Americas. Successes in war up to 1763 had extended this advantage. Success in war against France reinforced it as every other major European competitor had been economically damaged by war.
The nature of government: After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, Britain was relatively stable but open to change. During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, furthermore, governments were less and less likely to uphold apprenticeship regulations and other feudal restrictions on the free movement of labour.
The profitability of overseas trade and the advantage of empire: Britain had a healthy lead over European competitors in overseas trade, particularly in India and the Americas. Successes in war up to 1763 had extended this advantage. Success in war against France reinforced it as every other major European competitor had been economically damaged by war.
The nature of government: After the Glorious Revolution in 1688, Britain was relatively stable but open to change. During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, furthermore, governments were less and less likely to uphold apprenticeship regulations and other feudal restrictions on the free movement of labour.
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Britain as an inventive society: Britain generated a huge number of innovative ideas during the eighteenth century. The famous industrial innovations - the Water Frame, Power Loom and the rest - were symptomatic of a much wider commitment to experiment, from which society benefited. Also new institutions, such as the Royal Society of Arts (1754), promoted innovation and diffusion of scientific and technological ideas.
Britain's advantage as a Protestant country: This explanation has its origins in the views of the German sociologist Max Weber who argued that Protestant values and lifestyles were more conducive to thrift, hard work and accumulations of money than were Catholic ones. |
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Britain as an 'open society': Some social historians, notably Professor Harold Perkin, have laid particular stress upon the unique nature of British society. He sees a relatively liberal society open to talent in which the ablest can rise to wealth, influence and power. Also Britain's aristocracy was not a closed caste; younger sons often married the heiresses of bankers and overseas traders, while very successful entrepreneurs came from humble backgrounds.
Activities
1. Explain the view that ‘the Industrial revolution was much more than just a revolution in industry’.
2. Why do you think some historians have been unhappy to use the term ‘revolution’ for the industrial changes in the late 18th and early 19th century?
3. What reasons have been suggested to explain why Europe was the first continent to industrialise? Why is it impossible to’ know’ for certain why Europe was first?
4. This page suggests nine different reasons why the industrial revolution occurred first in Britain. Can you combine and reorganise the reasons into no more than five factors? For each factor make a big point, explain it and give an example. (PEE)
5. In your view, which is the most persuasive explanation for why Britain industrialised first?
1. Explain the view that ‘the Industrial revolution was much more than just a revolution in industry’.
2. Why do you think some historians have been unhappy to use the term ‘revolution’ for the industrial changes in the late 18th and early 19th century?
3. What reasons have been suggested to explain why Europe was the first continent to industrialise? Why is it impossible to’ know’ for certain why Europe was first?
4. This page suggests nine different reasons why the industrial revolution occurred first in Britain. Can you combine and reorganise the reasons into no more than five factors? For each factor make a big point, explain it and give an example. (PEE)
5. In your view, which is the most persuasive explanation for why Britain industrialised first?
Extension
Contrary to the impression given by my text above, why Britain was first to industrialise is subject to serious historical debate. John Green clearly loves the industrial revolution - he has covered it in Crash Course lots of times - the video below focuses on why the revolution was important and why Europe was first. From what you've studied above, I think you could take him on in a debate about why Britain was first. What do you think of his explanation? Anything missing? And if you're really serious watch the video 'why did the Industrial Revolution happen here? To what extent does it confirm what you have learnt in this lesson?
Contrary to the impression given by my text above, why Britain was first to industrialise is subject to serious historical debate. John Green clearly loves the industrial revolution - he has covered it in Crash Course lots of times - the video below focuses on why the revolution was important and why Europe was first. From what you've studied above, I think you could take him on in a debate about why Britain was first. What do you think of his explanation? Anything missing? And if you're really serious watch the video 'why did the Industrial Revolution happen here? To what extent does it confirm what you have learnt in this lesson?
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Lesson 2 - The economic impact of the Industrial Revolution - Agriculture
This lesson deals with innovations in the British economy that made the industrial revolution happen. Paradoxically, the industrial revolution began in the countryside not in the towns. If the industrial revolution was going to happen, Britain needed to produce enough food for more people with fewer farmers than ever before. This was called the agricultural revolution.
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Agricultural change 1750-1900
In the sixteenth century, most arable land (land used for crops) in England, especially in the Midlands and East Anglia, was organised in what was known as the open field system. • large fields were divided into strips (dark colour) • farmers would farm strips in each of the fields • fields would be sown every year with wheat, barley and oats • each field would have a different crop each year and one year in three it would be left fallow (with nothing growing in it) • crops would be rotated (changed) every year to allow the soil to recover some of its goodness • common land on which all the villagers could graze their animals would be available near the village • meadows and woodlands were also common land; from the meadows, villagers could collect wood for fires and building and keep their pigs there. |
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The open field system worked well as the means of feeding a stable population, but there were disadvantages. Farmers' strips were often scattered far and wide, so time was wasted travelling between them. The arrangement of the strips meant that there was little possibility for innovation (new ideas) or the use of new machines. This meant that land was often badly drained and less productive than it could have been. Seed was sown by hand, most often by the broadcasting method, where seed was simply thrown onto the ground. Another problem was that disease could spread quickly amongst the animals on the common land.
As we saw last year in the 17th century Dutch agriculture benefitted from a number of innovations. The Netherlands were at the forefront of agricultural innovation. Instead of periodically leaving land fallow, the Dutch rotated crops (turnips, peas, and clover alternating with grain). This enabled them to sustain high levels of production without exhausting the land. Alternation of "fodder crops" with grain also allowed the farmer to keep more livestock and use their manure to fertilize the land, so winning both ways.
Why was there pressure on farmers to produce more?
• The population began to rise steadily.
• Urbanisation resulted in a larger number of people who did not grow their own food.
• From 1793-1815 Britain was at war with France. During this war Napoleon attempted to blockade Britain, to prevent food coming into the country.
As we saw last year in the 17th century Dutch agriculture benefitted from a number of innovations. The Netherlands were at the forefront of agricultural innovation. Instead of periodically leaving land fallow, the Dutch rotated crops (turnips, peas, and clover alternating with grain). This enabled them to sustain high levels of production without exhausting the land. Alternation of "fodder crops" with grain also allowed the farmer to keep more livestock and use their manure to fertilize the land, so winning both ways.
Why was there pressure on farmers to produce more?
• The population began to rise steadily.
• Urbanisation resulted in a larger number of people who did not grow their own food.
• From 1793-1815 Britain was at war with France. During this war Napoleon attempted to blockade Britain, to prevent food coming into the country.
Enclosure
Enclosure was when a field, made up of a number of strips, was surrounded by a fence or a hedge. The move from the open field system to enclosed fields was a very important change to how the land was farmed. Enclosure meant that more land, including common land, was put under cultivation (planted with crops). The owners of the new fields could experiment with new farming methods. However, enclosure was expensive - hedges, ditches, drains and roads cost a considerable amount to maintain. Many farmers lost their strips and could not afford to enclose the land given to them. Many were forced to sell their land, often to wealthy landowners, and work as labourers. As a result, many more large farms were created.
The Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815) had a great impact on the development of agriculture: food prices rose, and farmers rushed to enclose the land - during the war around 3 million acres were enclosed. As prices rose, so did farmers' incomes and they were able to spend money on new machinery and develop new techniques of farming.
Enclosure was when a field, made up of a number of strips, was surrounded by a fence or a hedge. The move from the open field system to enclosed fields was a very important change to how the land was farmed. Enclosure meant that more land, including common land, was put under cultivation (planted with crops). The owners of the new fields could experiment with new farming methods. However, enclosure was expensive - hedges, ditches, drains and roads cost a considerable amount to maintain. Many farmers lost their strips and could not afford to enclose the land given to them. Many were forced to sell their land, often to wealthy landowners, and work as labourers. As a result, many more large farms were created.
The Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815) had a great impact on the development of agriculture: food prices rose, and farmers rushed to enclose the land - during the war around 3 million acres were enclosed. As prices rose, so did farmers' incomes and they were able to spend money on new machinery and develop new techniques of farming.
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The innovators
Charles 'Turnip' Townshend (1725-67) copied the Dutch by encouraging a rotation of turnips, barley, wheat and clover. The turnips and clover put goodness back into the soil. Unlike the crop rotation of the open field system, there was not the waste of a fallow year.
Jethro Tull (1674-1741) believed that the broadcasting method of sowing seed was wasteful. His answer was to invent the seed drill in 1701. This new machine would sow seeds by drilling into the earth and then cover the holes.
Robert Bakewell (1725-95) experimented by crossbreeding animals. He cross-bred sheep to produce the New Leicester variety because this provided more meat. He did the same with cattle and horses.
1815-1870
One of the most important changes in agriculture was the introduction and wider use of steam-powered machines. Steam threshers had been introduced in the 1820s and 1830s and by 1880 two-thirds of the corn harvest was threshed by machine. Also important in improving productivity was the increasingly widespread use of fertilisers. In 1843, J. B. Lawes showed that treated crushed animal bones could make excellent fertiliser. The result of the growth in fertilisers is clear - from the late 1830s to the late 1850s, wheat yields increased by 50 per cent. Most important to the growth in agriculture were the developments in transport. The new railways linked food-producing areas with expanding and prosperous towns.
Charles 'Turnip' Townshend (1725-67) copied the Dutch by encouraging a rotation of turnips, barley, wheat and clover. The turnips and clover put goodness back into the soil. Unlike the crop rotation of the open field system, there was not the waste of a fallow year.
Jethro Tull (1674-1741) believed that the broadcasting method of sowing seed was wasteful. His answer was to invent the seed drill in 1701. This new machine would sow seeds by drilling into the earth and then cover the holes.
Robert Bakewell (1725-95) experimented by crossbreeding animals. He cross-bred sheep to produce the New Leicester variety because this provided more meat. He did the same with cattle and horses.
1815-1870
One of the most important changes in agriculture was the introduction and wider use of steam-powered machines. Steam threshers had been introduced in the 1820s and 1830s and by 1880 two-thirds of the corn harvest was threshed by machine. Also important in improving productivity was the increasingly widespread use of fertilisers. In 1843, J. B. Lawes showed that treated crushed animal bones could make excellent fertiliser. The result of the growth in fertilisers is clear - from the late 1830s to the late 1850s, wheat yields increased by 50 per cent. Most important to the growth in agriculture were the developments in transport. The new railways linked food-producing areas with expanding and prosperous towns.
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Activities
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Lesson 3 - The economic impact of the Industrial Revolution - Industry
If there are gaps in the page below its because Apple doesn't like Flash files so they don't show up on iPads, phones etc. Thank Steve Jobs.
If there are gaps in the page below its because Apple doesn't like Flash files so they don't show up on iPads, phones etc. Thank Steve Jobs.
Iron and steel
Iron and then steel were the materials of the Industrial Revolution. Their production on a large scale made engineering, transport and industrial change possible. The main changes in the iron and steel industries between 1750 and 1900 were in the scale of production.
Iron and then steel were the materials of the Industrial Revolution. Their production on a large scale made engineering, transport and industrial change possible. The main changes in the iron and steel industries between 1750 and 1900 were in the scale of production.
In 1709 Abraham Darby introduced coal based smelting (coke) which meant that the iron industry no longer depended on charcoal. To demonstrate their expertise the Darby family made the world's first Iron Bridge in 1786.
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In 1783 Henry Cort's puddling and rolling process allowed the production of large sheets of iron. In 1775 ironmaster John Wilkinson used Watt's steam engine to work the bellows of his furnace. Equally important was John Naysmyth's invention of the steam hammer in 1839. This could hammer out huge sheets of iron to be used in making bridges and ships. 
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The Iron Bridge is a cast iron arch bridge that crosses the River Severn in Shropshire, England. Opened in 1781, it was the first major bridge in the world to be made of cast iron. Its success inspired the widespread use of cast iron as a structural material.
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Steam power
The early factories were powered by waterwheels and were located next to rivers. Gradually steam replaced water as the main source of power in the Industrial Revolution. The process of developing a steam engine capable of meeting the needs of industry took decades. The first steam engine was developed to pump water out of the bottom of coal mines (see below 1712). By 1781 James Watt had managed to design a steam engine that could turn a wheel. The importance of Watt’s engine was that he had linked steam power to motion. However, his invention did not mean that every factory quickly changed to steam power. In 1800 there were only around 500 of Watt’s machines in use partly because Boulton and Watt controlled the patent. (see film below right) However, by 1850 steam power was far more widespread, especially in the cotton industry. It also had a crucial role in the development of the railways because steam was the power used to drive the engines.
The early factories were powered by waterwheels and were located next to rivers. Gradually steam replaced water as the main source of power in the Industrial Revolution. The process of developing a steam engine capable of meeting the needs of industry took decades. The first steam engine was developed to pump water out of the bottom of coal mines (see below 1712). By 1781 James Watt had managed to design a steam engine that could turn a wheel. The importance of Watt’s engine was that he had linked steam power to motion. However, his invention did not mean that every factory quickly changed to steam power. In 1800 there were only around 500 of Watt’s machines in use partly because Boulton and Watt controlled the patent. (see film below right) However, by 1850 steam power was far more widespread, especially in the cotton industry. It also had a crucial role in the development of the railways because steam was the power used to drive the engines.
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The coal industry
The increasing demand for coal was due to a number of reasons: a growing population which used coal for heating, the building of the railways and the running of steam trains, the growth of the iron industry and the development of coal gas lighting which used coal to produce the gas. As a result of this increase in demand, it was necessary to dig deeper mines so more coal could be extracted. |
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As the mines were dug deeper so miners came across more water and pockets of methane gas. Steam pumps were used to circulate air and remove water. The problem of explosions underground was tackled by John Buddie who, in 1810, used trap doors to introduce fresh air to various parts of the mine. Sir Humphrey Davy introduced the Davy safety Lamp in 1815. (right)
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Textiles
In 1750 most of the textile process took place in the home in the ‘Domestic System’. The workers would spin thread or weave cloth and then sell their produce to merchants. The benefit of this system was that the workers could work from home. The disadvantage was that cloth was expensive because the manufacturing process required a lot of labour. The change from the domestic system to the factory system was the result of the work of a number of inventors which were outlined in the first lesson.
In 1750 most of the textile process took place in the home in the ‘Domestic System’. The workers would spin thread or weave cloth and then sell their produce to merchants. The benefit of this system was that the workers could work from home. The disadvantage was that cloth was expensive because the manufacturing process required a lot of labour. The change from the domestic system to the factory system was the result of the work of a number of inventors which were outlined in the first lesson.
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The result of these inventions was to make cotton easier to produce and with less labour, so the price of cotton goods fell. This in turn meant that demand went up, so more cotton was produced. Before improvements in steam engine technology, most of the new textiles factories such as Richard Arkwright's mill at Cromford in Derbyshire (below built in 1771) relied on water power.
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The move towards larger cotton factories was partly the result of a shift from water to steam power. As a result of this change factories were moved from near sources of water power into towns and cities. The innovations in machinery were more suitable for use in the cotton industry than in any other. By 1850 it was cotton that had become the first industry to move to a factory system on a wide scale.
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Activity
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If I were you, I'd begin by enjoying the slightly mad Mark Williams talking for 20 minutes about the centrality of coal and steam in the Industrial Revolution (Industrial Revelations right). Before he was Arthur Weasley in Harry Potter and before going on to study at Oxford University, he won a school history award and requested as a prize a book about Industrial Archaeology. This is not simply an actor performing a script to camera. See more about him and watch the whole series here. Complete this diagram to illustrate the centrality of steam power to the Industrial Revolution. You can either complete the sheet given to you by hand or download this Word document to complete on a computer. Show how the iron and steel, coal and textiles industries depended on steam power. Use the diagram below to help you.
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Lesson 4 - The transport revolutions
This economic feature of the industrial revolution deserves a section to itself.
This economic feature of the industrial revolution deserves a section to itself.
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The first transport revolution dating from 1750 and lasting until 1830 concerned improvements in roads and in particular the building of canals. The second beginning in 1800 and lasting until the second half of the 19th century concerned the development of steam locomotives and the railways. The road network in Britain in 1700 was considerably worse than in Roman times. In 1706 government introduced the Turnpike Trust law which allowed private citizens to improve and maintain roads and then charge tolls. Some of Britain's most important engineers such as Telford and McAdam worked to improve road quality. Turnpike roads were very unpopular but they did lead to improvements and a boom in the growth and importance of stage coach companies. By 1837 there were 3,300 stage coaches employing 30,000 people and hundreds of inns.
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Even more important to the initial industrial growth of Britain was the building of canals. As we have seen, climate (rain) and physical geography (rivers, proximity to the sea and flat terrain) gave Britain advantages when it came to canals. And canals were essential as a means of transporting the very heavy raw materials - coal, iron ore and limestone - and the heavy finished goods from the mines, to the foundries and down to the ports. Again Britain produced engineers like Brindley and Telford (again) who overcame natural obstacles with brilliant innovations like locks and viaducts. The last decade of the 18th century has been described as the period of canal 'mania', where vast profits could be made through investing in canal building or the companies that directly benefitted. My favourite example is the Oxford canal which provided an annual 30% interest on an initial investment over 30 years. Go and put your money in a bank today and see how much your get!
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Probably the innovation most associated with the Industrial Revolution was the steam locomotive. Boulton and Watt's low pressure steam engines did not have the power to move themselves, because in order to generate the power they had to become too big to move. Understand? In addition, as mentioned above, Boulton and Watt used patents to stop business competitors from working with their inventions and potentially innovating. These patents ran out in 1800. Soon after the first successful steam locomotive to run on iron tracks was developed in South Wales (of course) and came about as a result of bet between two rival iron masters in the town of Merthyr Tydfil. Mark Williams relates the story very well.
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In 1808 Trevithick took a third version of his locomotive to London and created a 'steam circus', a circular railway with the world's first paying passengers.
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Despite impressive top speeds of up to 20kmh the novelty was not commercially viable and Trevithick went bankrupt in 1809. As a result, the father of the modern railway is considered to be George Stephenson. He was the engineer on the Stockton-Darlington railway which opened in 1825 and the more important Manchester-Liverpool which opened in 1830. His locomotive the Rocket incorporated many engineering innovations that enabled a top speed of nearly 50kmh, these were incorporated into future designs for generations to come.
Tomorrow, 15th September, marks the 190th anniversary of the first fatality caused by a passenger railway, the death of government minister William Huskisson who was killed at the opening of the Manchester-Liverpool railway. Scott Allsop's HistoryPod (below) takes up the story
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The consequences of the railway
We will consider the broader social and cultural impact of the railways in future lessons. Here we will look at some of the most direct, largely economic consequences.
We will consider the broader social and cultural impact of the railways in future lessons. Here we will look at some of the most direct, largely economic consequences.
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The first obvious consequence was for travel times, the second was the amount and weight of goods that could be carried. (See diagrams below)
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What impact did this have on the economy? The most important consequence is what economist call the 'multiplier effect'. The savings made in transport costs allowed industrialists to reduce the price of their goods. Because more people could afford to buy these goods this led to increased demand which encouraged higher levels of production. As industrialists made more profits they paid more dividends to share holders and invested more capital in new technology and buildings. More production required more raw materials, new factories and more workers. More workers meant more consumers and bigger towns. This increased the demand still further... and on and on and on.
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The railways were also a communications revolution. It wasn't only people and raw materials and manufactured goods that began to speed their way across the country. Daily newspapers printed in London could now be delivered across the country the same day, keeping people informed of the latest political stories. People's outlook became less parochial and they were increasingly interested in national news.
In 1840 Britain became the first country to introduce uniform, cheap, prepaid stamps (Switzerland was the second country) which revolutionised the postal service. (See the very first 'Penny Black' stamps below) Very soon after, special trains were created that allowed the mail to be sorted on the move, thus significantly speeding up delivery times. |
Railways even changed the time that people lived by. Before the railways, each part of the country had its own time, which was set when the sun reached midday in their area. The further west you travelled, you had to add 1 minute for every 16 km. When the railways were built this had to change as a number of train crashes were caused by trains running to different times. Station clocks, like the one below, began using London time. In 1880, Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) became everyone’s time in Britain and then the rest of the world.
These 'Penny Black' stamps are available to buy on line if you're interested.
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Railways also provided a boost to the ongoing revolution in agriculture that we looked at in a previous lesson. Railways both reduced farmers transport costs which allowed the production of cheaper food and also increased transport speed which enabled farmers to provide fresher meat, fish, fruit and vegetables to the urban centres. Fish and chips became a British national dish made possible by the transportation of cheap, fresh fish to the cities.
Finally, Railways had a significant impact on the physical environment. Railways work best going in a flat, straight line. This meant that engineers had to cut away slopes and build up embankments to ease the locomotive's passage. Where this was impossible, tunnels were built. Where tracks were laid, farmland had to be procured. And in villages where stations were built, the possibility of commuting created demand for new housing and pressure on local amenities. The village of Itchen Abbass in Hampshire provides us with a good case study of what happened.
Itchen Abbas case study
The Itchen Abbas railway station was in the county of Hampshire in England and opened on 2 October 1865 by the Alton, Alresford and Winchester Railway. Consider the following sources which illustrate its transformation by the railways.
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Itchen Abbas was typical of many rural communities that were transformed by the railways. An isolated, rural community was opened up through a railway station that brought the outside world in. Farmland was built on, tracks were laid on land that was flattened or built up and the population grew.
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Itchen Abbas railway station in 1979.
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Activities
1. Explain why the development of roads and canals were essential to the early stages of the industrial revolution in Britain. 2. Who was Richard Trevithick? What was his contribution to the industrial revolution? Why is George Stephenson rather than Trevithick considered to be the father of the railways? 3. What were some of the main direct consequences of the development of the railway? (You must include the multiplier effect!) 4. Using the sources in the Itchen Abbas case study to support your answer, explain how small villages might be transformed by the coming of the railways. Extension - I don't see you next week so...
John Green takes an interestingly philosophical look at the impact of the railways which draws parallels with the technological changes of our own time. He also interestingly leads on to some of the social and cultural changes we'll be examining in future lessons. |
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Lesson 5 - The social impact of the Industrial Revolution
The three social transformations of the Industrial Revolution.
The 19th Century German socialist Karl Marx argued that when we change the way we produce; we change the world. And because we are always looking to improve the way we produce; society is constantly changing. As he wrote in 1847:
‘Social relations are closely bound up with productive forces. In acquiring new productive forces men change their mode of production; and in changing their mode of production, in changing the way of earning their living, they change all their social relations. The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist.’
We can identify three interrelated social transformations brought about by the Industrial Revolution:
The 19th Century German socialist Karl Marx argued that when we change the way we produce; we change the world. And because we are always looking to improve the way we produce; society is constantly changing. As he wrote in 1847:
‘Social relations are closely bound up with productive forces. In acquiring new productive forces men change their mode of production; and in changing their mode of production, in changing the way of earning their living, they change all their social relations. The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist.’
We can identify three interrelated social transformations brought about by the Industrial Revolution:
- Urbanisation. The change in where people lived. People went from being village dwellers to being town dwellers. Towns grew rapidly with significant social consequences.
- New social classes. The change in who people were. The rise in the new entrepreneurial middle classes and urban working classes.
- New ways of working. The change in the mode and method of production resulting in new ways of earning a living.
1. Urbanisation
Why did the population grow so quickly?
Why did the population grow so quickly?
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The birth rate rose, and the death rate fell. In other words, more babies were being born and fewer people died so early. As we have seen, improved more efficient farming methods resulted in better quality food being produced, and more of it. Nutrition therefore improved for most people from the unborn child upwards. This helped reduce slightly the infant death rate and also improved the fertility of couples. Growth of industry meant there were many new jobs and steady wages. This resulted in couples being able to get married and start having children at an earlier age.
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What happened to the traditional ‘domestic system’ of industrial production?
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As the number of factories increased, the wages of domestic weavers went down. They simply couldn’t compete.
‘A very good handloom weaver, 25 or 30 years of age, will weave two pieces of [cloth] per week, each 24 yards long. In 1833, a power loom weaver, from 15 to 20 years of age, attending to four looms, can weave eighteen similar pieces in a week; some can weave twenty.’
Gradually, the domestic workers, just like the poorer farmers we saw in a previous lesson, decided they had to leave the countryside to work in the new factory system around which the new towns grew up. This provided the new factory system with the workers it needed, but it also encouraged further innovation and ‘enclosure’ in the countryside, thereby forcing more poorer farmers to migrate to the towns. These farmers and domestic workers arrived in the towns, married earlier and the population grew further. Many more houses were needed, and most people living in towns had to suffer overcrowding in poorly built houses. Thousands of new houses were built in a very short time, without any rules on planning or quality.
A contemporary writer explained why conditions were bad:
‘These towns have been built by small speculators with no interest for anything except immediate profit. A carpenter and a brick-layer club together to buy a patch of ground and cover it with what they call houses.’ Houses were crammed together, ‘back-to-back’. Many had no foundations, were damp and lacked ventilation. Very few had any form of sanitation. Sometimes there was a privy (primitive toilet) shared between several houses (below).
A contemporary writer explained why conditions were bad:
‘These towns have been built by small speculators with no interest for anything except immediate profit. A carpenter and a brick-layer club together to buy a patch of ground and cover it with what they call houses.’ Houses were crammed together, ‘back-to-back’. Many had no foundations, were damp and lacked ventilation. Very few had any form of sanitation. Sometimes there was a privy (primitive toilet) shared between several houses (below).
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The shortage of housing often meant that one house accommodated several families, each having one room:
‘On the second floor lived a widow. In her room lived her grown-up son, two daughters, and two or three children of one of these daughters. Above on the third floor lived a market porter, his wife and four children.’ Charles Booth, 1889.
‘On the second floor lived a widow. In her room lived her grown-up son, two daughters, and two or three children of one of these daughters. Above on the third floor lived a market porter, his wife and four children.’ Charles Booth, 1889.
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Most of these ‘slum’ dwellings contained little in the way of furniture. Many had just a table, a few chairs and a bed. Some did not even have that. A bed would be shared by several family members, and if some did shift work, the bed could be used night and day. Needless to say, the major effect of such poor, overcrowded and dirty housing was poor health. The awful living conditions were an ideal environment for diseases to spread. TB (tuberculosis), diphtheria, measles, cholera and influenza were just a few of the diseases which claimed hundreds of thousands of lives. Together with dangerous working conditions, long hours, poor diet and pollution, this resulted in an average life expectancy for the working class in Manchester of just 17 years.
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Activities – Part 1 – Urbanisation
1. Using the data in Source 1 – ‘The growth of towns from 1750 to 1851’, create a graph to represent the change in population at that time. Make sure to use a pencil/ruler or Excel.
2. Explain carefully why the population grew so quickly during this period.
3. Explain both the causes and the consequences of the decline in the ‘domestic system’ in Britain.
4. Identify the main causes of poor living conditions in the early industrial phase and explain the main consequences of these conditions.
1. Using the data in Source 1 – ‘The growth of towns from 1750 to 1851’, create a graph to represent the change in population at that time. Make sure to use a pencil/ruler or Excel.
2. Explain carefully why the population grew so quickly during this period.
3. Explain both the causes and the consequences of the decline in the ‘domestic system’ in Britain.
4. Identify the main causes of poor living conditions in the early industrial phase and explain the main consequences of these conditions.
2. New social classes.
The second significant social consequence of the industrial revolution was the rise in new social classes. The creation of new types of work, new working contracts and new relations between employers and employees, transformed the very nature of what it meant to ‘work’. In particular, two new social classes appeared, a new entrepreneurial middle class that Marx called the bourgeoisie and the urban, industrial working class that Marx called the proletariat.
The second significant social consequence of the industrial revolution was the rise in new social classes. The creation of new types of work, new working contracts and new relations between employers and employees, transformed the very nature of what it meant to ‘work’. In particular, two new social classes appeared, a new entrepreneurial middle class that Marx called the bourgeoisie and the urban, industrial working class that Marx called the proletariat.
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The new capitalist class, like Titus Salt (right) were sons of merchants and early industrialists. They made vast fortunes in the industrial revolution. They were owners of factories, mills, foundries and mines but also provided services to the expanded populations of the new towns.
The new middle class had significant economic influence but little national political power because Parliament was still dominated by a ruling landowning aristocracy. Many of the new middle class campaigned for political reform and changes to favour the interest of the new industrial economy. They were often very influential in local politics. |
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The new industrial working class were recent migrants from the countryside. They might be attracted by the freedom and excitement of the towns or driven from the countryside by declining wages and lost work opportunities. They were freed from feudal ties to sell their labour in the new factories. They were unprotected, unorganised and easily exploited in badly paid, insecure and dangerous occupations. But they were concentrated in greater numbers than ever before, better educated than the peasants of the countryside and like the capitalists, they were interested in more political power as a means of improving their lives.
3. New ways of working.
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The third significant social consequence of the industrial revolution were the new working conditions. Today we expect our place of work to be safe and reasonably comfortable, but 200 years ago there were no laws governing health and safety. A factory owner’s main concern was how much profit he made, and he was free to do this as he wanted. If he paid his workers more and put in safety precautions, he had to spend more money and therefore made less profit.
Very few factory owners were prepared to reduce profits by improving the working conditions of their labourers. Unlike the workers in traditional skilled industries who were protected and represented by guilds, the new industrial working class had no union representation and because they were unskilled could easily be replaced. |
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Many new machines were invented for mass producing in the factories. These cost a lot of money. That these machines were often dangerous for the operators was of little concern to the manufacturer. Usually he was more concerned if any accident delayed the production process. Accidents were commonplace and many people lost fingers, hands or limbs with no compensation.
Some factories were so noisy that the workers went deaf. Factories were rarely heated in winter or ventilated in summer. Steam or gases often made the air unbearable. There was no protection against dangerous chemicals or gases and the owner was not liable for any injuries.
“The packer has to enter a chamber which has been filled with chlorine gas. Though the worst of it has been allowed to escape, the atmosphere is still charged with deadly fumes. The heat is tremendous. Gassing is such a common matter that the men would describe it as they would tell you what their Sunday dinner was like.” Reference to ‘bleach powder packers’ in a Home Office report of 1893.
“She was caught by her apron, which wrapped around the shaft. She was whirled round and repeatedly forced between the shaft and the carding engine. (Her right leg was found some distance away.)” A factory inspector reporting what happened to a young girl in a textile factory in the 1840s.
“The packer has to enter a chamber which has been filled with chlorine gas. Though the worst of it has been allowed to escape, the atmosphere is still charged with deadly fumes. The heat is tremendous. Gassing is such a common matter that the men would describe it as they would tell you what their Sunday dinner was like.” Reference to ‘bleach powder packers’ in a Home Office report of 1893.
“She was caught by her apron, which wrapped around the shaft. She was whirled round and repeatedly forced between the shaft and the carding engine. (Her right leg was found some distance away.)” A factory inspector reporting what happened to a young girl in a textile factory in the 1840s.
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Perhaps the most shocking aspect of early industrial revolution was the use of child labour. Children had always worked in the domestic system and on the farms. The extra money they made was also welcomed by working class families. Many children, from as young as six years old, were employed because they could be paid very little and were small enough to crawl under the machines. Often, they would be beaten to keep them awake. All workers were fined for being late or slowing down in their work and they could be sacked immediately with no explanation.
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Gradually, as a result of popular and political pressure (see future lesson), laws were passed to regulate some of the worst excesses on the early industrial revolution in Britain.
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Activities – Part 2 – New social classes and working conditions.
1. Briefly outline the main characteristics of the new capitalist class and new working class. 2. Both workers and capitalists, wanted to see changes in how the country was run. What changes do you think the workers wanted? What changes do you think the capitalists wanted? Do you think they could agree on any changes? 3. Using the table of legislation (laws) passed in 19th century England below, identify three different working conditions that would have been allowed in 1800. For example, workers were not protected from dangerous machinery because a law wasn’t passed to ‘fence dangerous machinery’ until the 1844 Factory Act. |
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Extension
These three BBC schools dramatic documentaries provide you with a good overview of the issues of this lesson.
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Lesson 6 - The cultural consequences of the Industrial Revolution
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Lesson 7 - The political consequences of the Industrial Revolution
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Lesson 8 - Switzerland
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End of Unit Test 1
There will be four sections to this test. Students should be guided by the number of marks available for the question, as an indication of how long to spend on it. Try the quiz to get an idea of the questions. It's old fashioned Flash software from years ago, so must allow your browser to play it.
Question 2 – Source contextualisation [4 marks]
You will be presented with a historical source (visual, written, diagrammatic etc.) and you will be asked to interpret details from the source in their historical context. The questions will be particular to the sources chosen.
Question type examples:
What does the author mean by xxxx in the context of the causes of Industrial Revolution?
In the cartoon about imperialism, what is the meaning of xxxx?
In the graph showing population increase what is the significance of xxxx?
Question 3 – Recall and describe [6 marks]
In this question you will be expected to select and remember relevant historical information and present it accurately with detailed factual support.
Describe the main innovations of the agricultural revolution.
Describe the main features of the ‘domestic system’.
Describe the laws in Britain and Switzerland that changed the working conditions in the factories.
Describe the new cultural experiences that were made possible by the industrial revolution.
Describe how the political system of Britain evolved during the 19th century
Describe the main industries of the Swiss industrial revolution.
Question 4 – Historical Explanation [10 marks]
In this question you will be expected to provide a coherent, well supported historical explanation that goes beyond a merely accurate, chronological ordering of events. The best answers will provide a well-structured, thematic account that relies on an analytical approach to the question that is well supported by accurate historical knowledge.
Why was Britain the first country to have an industrial revolution?
Explain how Britain was socially transformed by the industrial revolution.
Explain why Britain’s towns grew so rapidly during the 19th century.
How did the railways transform the culture of Britain?
Why was Britain on the verge of revolution in the period up to 1848?
Explain why Switzerland was one of the first countries to industrialise despite having few natural advantages.
You will be presented with a historical source (visual, written, diagrammatic etc.) and you will be asked to interpret details from the source in their historical context. The questions will be particular to the sources chosen.
Question type examples:
What does the author mean by xxxx in the context of the causes of Industrial Revolution?
In the cartoon about imperialism, what is the meaning of xxxx?
In the graph showing population increase what is the significance of xxxx?
Question 3 – Recall and describe [6 marks]
In this question you will be expected to select and remember relevant historical information and present it accurately with detailed factual support.
Describe the main innovations of the agricultural revolution.
Describe the main features of the ‘domestic system’.
Describe the laws in Britain and Switzerland that changed the working conditions in the factories.
Describe the new cultural experiences that were made possible by the industrial revolution.
Describe how the political system of Britain evolved during the 19th century
Describe the main industries of the Swiss industrial revolution.
Question 4 – Historical Explanation [10 marks]
In this question you will be expected to provide a coherent, well supported historical explanation that goes beyond a merely accurate, chronological ordering of events. The best answers will provide a well-structured, thematic account that relies on an analytical approach to the question that is well supported by accurate historical knowledge.
Why was Britain the first country to have an industrial revolution?
Explain how Britain was socially transformed by the industrial revolution.
Explain why Britain’s towns grew so rapidly during the 19th century.
How did the railways transform the culture of Britain?
Why was Britain on the verge of revolution in the period up to 1848?
Explain why Switzerland was one of the first countries to industrialise despite having few natural advantages.