Lesson 1 - Russia Before 1917, déjà vu?
For this final year of the Matu, you'll be pleased to know that you won't have to rely entirely on what I say and write. We have a textbook and although not written for Swiss students sitting a bizarre oral exam, most of it will be directly relevant for what we need... including today.
In our previous lesson we were looking at the First World War and the very last sentence I wrote was this: 'In the summer of 1916, General Brusilov (Brusilov Offensive) a stunning offensive against the Austrians. Three Russian armies broke through the Austrian lines and captured the city of Lutsk on 8 June. But by August, the Russian advance was running out of steam. Another 500,000 Russians were dead or wounded, adding to the half million dead or wounded already in 1916. Such losses intensified Russia’s domestic problems.' In this first lesson, using our new textbook, we are going to look for closely at those 'domestic problems' because those long-term problems led to (arguably) the most significant even of the 20th century, the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.
In our previous lesson we were looking at the First World War and the very last sentence I wrote was this: 'In the summer of 1916, General Brusilov (Brusilov Offensive) a stunning offensive against the Austrians. Three Russian armies broke through the Austrian lines and captured the city of Lutsk on 8 June. But by August, the Russian advance was running out of steam. Another 500,000 Russians were dead or wounded, adding to the half million dead or wounded already in 1916. Such losses intensified Russia’s domestic problems.' In this first lesson, using our new textbook, we are going to look for closely at those 'domestic problems' because those long-term problems led to (arguably) the most significant even of the 20th century, the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917.
|
|
You know you're getting better at doing history when you start to see things you've seen before. If you can start to see links between separate events and patterns in the chaos of the past, you are beginning to think historically. History starts to become more interesting when it is more than simply 'one damn thing after another'. History also starts to become more useful, because you start to see those links and patterns in your daily life.
Discussion question. You've studied successful revolutions at least twice before, what did they have in common? What causes revolution? As you read through your textbook try to identify problems in Russia that seem similar to the problems we have seen before in earlier revolutions. But also expect to see things that were new and perhaps unique to Russia before 1917. Use a table like the following to make your notes as you work your way through pages 98-103.
Discussion question. You've studied successful revolutions at least twice before, what did they have in common? What causes revolution? As you read through your textbook try to identify problems in Russia that seem similar to the problems we have seen before in earlier revolutions. But also expect to see things that were new and perhaps unique to Russia before 1917. Use a table like the following to make your notes as you work your way through pages 98-103.
|
|
Lesson 2 - How did the Tsar survive the 1905 Revolution?
The government’s attempts to deal with its problems failed dramatically. In 1903 it slightly relaxed censorship and other repressive measures. The result was an explosion of antigovernment pamphlets, books and newspapers. It also tried to set up government-approved trade unions (free trade unions were illegal), but this simply led to strikes and demands for free unions. In 1904, hoping to unite the country behind him with spectacular victories, the Tsar embarked on a war against Japan. In fact, Russia suffered a series of humiliating defeats.
Bloody Sunday
These tensions all came together on Sunday, 22 January 1905, when a crowd of 200,000 protesters, led by the priest Father Gapon, came to the Winter Palace to give a petition to the Tsar. Many of the marchers carried pictures of the Tsar to show their respect for him.
The Tsar was not in the Winter Palace. He had left St Petersburg when the first signs of trouble appeared. The protesters were met by a regiment of soldiers and mounted Cossacks. Without warning, the soldiers opened fire and the Cossacks charged. It was a decisive day. The Tsar finally lost the respect of Father Gapon and the ordinary people of Russia.
Bloody Sunday
These tensions all came together on Sunday, 22 January 1905, when a crowd of 200,000 protesters, led by the priest Father Gapon, came to the Winter Palace to give a petition to the Tsar. Many of the marchers carried pictures of the Tsar to show their respect for him.
The Tsar was not in the Winter Palace. He had left St Petersburg when the first signs of trouble appeared. The protesters were met by a regiment of soldiers and mounted Cossacks. Without warning, the soldiers opened fire and the Cossacks charged. It was a decisive day. The Tsar finally lost the respect of Father Gapon and the ordinary people of Russia.
|
|
If you've watched my films on 'what is history?', you'll know that I like to say all history is 'text'. What I mean is that all history is the work of historians working with the traces that the past has left behind, attempting to reconstruct through writing the way things were. Good history is not simply accurate and factual. No historian gets praised for getting their facts right. Good historians use their creative abilities, their imagination to attempt to bring the past alive. One of my favourite historians Orlando Figes is particularly good at this. Read (or listen below) to his account of the Bloody Sunday massacre and you'll get a sense of what I mean.
|
|
|
Activity 1
Read through the Orlando Figes's account of the 1905 revolution above.
What evidence is there that it is history? Choose some extracts which seem to you typically historical.
What evidence is there that it is literature? Choose some extracts which seem to you typical of literature.
What ultimately is the difference between literature and history?
Read through the Orlando Figes's account of the 1905 revolution above.
What evidence is there that it is history? Choose some extracts which seem to you typically historical.
What evidence is there that it is literature? Choose some extracts which seem to you typical of literature.
What ultimately is the difference between literature and history?
|
Activity 2 Using the PowerPoint above and your textbook explain on one page of A4 maximum:
|
When trying to explain the causes of revolution, it is important to distinguish between immediate short-term causes and often more important long-term causes. Short-term causes often only explain when the event happened rather than why.
The short-term cause of the revolution was the war with Japan we studied in the last unit. In addition, an analytical response requires you to demonstrate the links between different types of causes: political, economic, social and cultural. Sometimes additional factors also need to be considered such as war or the important role played by individuals. This sheet also has a useful summary of the topic. On the famous 1903 London conference that led to the Bolshevik - Menshevik split, this recent BBC radio broadcast is interesting.
|
Lesson 3 - The February Revolution 1917
As in 1905, war was going to be central to the events of February 1917. But so were the long-term causes you identified as underlying problems in 1900. Workers, peasants and ethnic minorities suffered considerably during the war, but the Tsar's popularity with the middle classes who had been appeased after 1905 also suffered. Perhaps most surprisingly even the nobility were calling for the Tsar to abdicate by the end of 1916. Indeed it was a group of aristocrats who organised the assassination of the Tsar's key advisor Rasputin in December 1916. They hoped that serious revolution might be avoided if the Tsar could be persuaded to stand down. But nothing is more dangerous for a weak government than making an attempt to reform. As we saw when looking at the French Revolution in Year 11, Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that 'experience teaches that the most dangerous time for a bad government is usually when it begins to reform'. As in France in 1789, so in Russia in 1917.
War and Revolution
|
|
|
|
Activity - 1. How did the First World War weaken the Tsar's government.
Use the sources and text on pages 108-110 of your textbook to present an overview of how the war affected four different groups of people in Russian society. Use the sheet provided to complete your work. It is important that you provide factual support - names, dates, numbers etc. - as supporting evidence for each of the four big points that you make. Why was the March 1917 revolution successful? Using the information on page 110 of your textbook - eight reasons why the Tsar was forced to abdicate - explain why 1917 was different from 1905 and why the Tsarist regime did not survive. The video below is an optional activity that focuses on the role of the aristocracy and the death of Rasputin. |
|
Lesson 4 - Marxism
Marxism is central to our understanding of the 20th century. As Marxist-Leninism (communism) it was one of three rival forms of political 'ideologies' that sought to inspire and organise politics and society in the modern world. After the First World War, communism along with fascism, attempted to replace the dominant ideology of the west, capitalist liberal democracy. Understanding Marxism is essential to making sense of the Russian Revolutions and the Cold War, and it is also specified as subject for examination in the oral exam on Russia and in the Industrial Revolution, which states : faire une étude comparative des théories communistes de Karl Marx et des mouvements présocialistes.'
|
Heaven on earth is a somewhat critical documentary on the history of socialism from an American perspective, but it does have the advantage of covering a little of the pre-Marxist 'utopian socialists', in this case Robert Owen. The film goes on to cover Marx and importantly the split in the world socialist movement between reformist socialists led be Eduard Bernstein and the revolutionary tradition which in the 20th century became inextricably linked to the work of Vladimir Lenin.
|
|
Marx is a turning point in the history of socialism because he consciously breaks with 'utopian socialism' which focused on simply imagining a world beyond capitalism. Instead Marx focused on understanding capitalism, where is came from, how it worked and why it would inevitably collapse. Marx refused to go in for 'writing recipes for cook shops of the future'. If Marx is still important today, it's not so much for what he said about socialism but rather how he analysed capitalism. This is what I am going to try and explain in this lesson. You might also find it useful to watch the Crash Course sociology video which should make sense if you've understood what I have said.
|
|
|
Activity
1. You need to watch the video Heaven on Earth and pay particular attention to the first section about Robert Owen. The Matu requires you to have some understanding on pre-Marxian socialism so in addition to Robert Owen research a little bit about the French authors Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier. This Wikipedia page contains enough information.
2. Complete my worksheet Marx and Marxism. You will find the School of Life video below useful for understanding some of the concepts. On Alienation the short BBC video is also good.
Extension suggestions. The films below are well worth watching. Mark Steel is funny and informative. The School of Life always has something interesting to say.
1. You need to watch the video Heaven on Earth and pay particular attention to the first section about Robert Owen. The Matu requires you to have some understanding on pre-Marxian socialism so in addition to Robert Owen research a little bit about the French authors Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier. This Wikipedia page contains enough information.
2. Complete my worksheet Marx and Marxism. You will find the School of Life video below useful for understanding some of the concepts. On Alienation the short BBC video is also good.
Extension suggestions. The films below are well worth watching. Mark Steel is funny and informative. The School of Life always has something interesting to say.
|
|
|
Lesson 4 - Lenin
|
|
Activity
Complete the questions on the worksheet 'What is Marxism and how did Lenin adapt it for Russia?
Complete the questions on the worksheet 'What is Marxism and how did Lenin adapt it for Russia?
Extension activity - Read this short extract from the one of the most important contemporary historians of the Russian Revolutions, Orlando Figes. Judging from this extract why do you think Figes is such a popular historian.
Lesson 5 - The October 'Bolshevik' Revolution
|
Why were there two revolutions in 1917?
To begin with you need to consider the timeline of events in 1917. The important events in bold you need to understand and remember. Lenin’s ‘fundamental law of revolution’
‘…for revolution it is essential, first, that a majority of the workers …should fully understand that revolution is necessary and be ready to sacrifice their lives for it; secondly that the ruling classes be in a state of governmental crisis which draws even the most backward masses into politics…a crisis which weakens the government and makes it possible for the revolutionaries to overthrow it rapidly’ Vladimir Lenin quoted in Lenin and the Russian Revolution, Christopher Hill 1947 |
|
The essential difference in the revolutions of 1917
‘The February revolution had been essentially the collapse of tsardom from within. The October revolution was a seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party from the Provisional Government, which had replaced the tsar but had proved no more capable of successfully leading Russia in wartime than he had.’
Reaction and Revolutions: Russia 1881-1924 Michael Lynch p. 80
February 1917 – ‘the collapse of tsardom from within’. It was a spontaneous affair; unplanned with no clear leadership. Compare February 1917 with October 1905.
Similarities?
Differences? Nicholas was able to survive 1905 but not in 1917 because:
Ironic. The ruling class thought they were learning from history, making concessions to avoid losing everything. But by failing to back the tsar they were sowing the seeds for their own crisis of legitimacy. By getting rid of the tsar they were demonstrating that anything was possible. The Provisional Government in contrast remained exactly that, provisional. It lacked the traditional basis of authority that 300 years of Romanov Tsars enjoyed.
Why was the war so important? Mass urban discontent could have been contained by force and liberals were always wary of unleashing a revolution. This happened in 1905. What was different about 1917 was the condition of the army. The loyal soldiers (and importantly the upper-class officers) of 1914 no longer existed by 1917. In addition, the bulk of the reliable fighting force was on the front line. They did not mutiny. The Tsar was brought down by the unreliable garrison troops in Petrograd. Most of the country was quiet. Reliable soldiers might have been found on the front line to support the Tsar.
‘The February revolution had been essentially the collapse of tsardom from within. The October revolution was a seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party from the Provisional Government, which had replaced the tsar but had proved no more capable of successfully leading Russia in wartime than he had.’
Reaction and Revolutions: Russia 1881-1924 Michael Lynch p. 80
February 1917 – ‘the collapse of tsardom from within’. It was a spontaneous affair; unplanned with no clear leadership. Compare February 1917 with October 1905.
Similarities?
- Defeat in war
- Liberal political aspirations conjoined with proletariat
Differences? Nicholas was able to survive 1905 but not in 1917 because:
- War ended quickly but it continued in 1917
- He made concessions but could not in 1917 because of the war
- He retained the support of the army and the ruling classes in 1905 but did not in 1917. Then army was not loyal, and the ruling classes were prepared to sacrifice the tsar. In so doing they hoped to buy off the revolutionaries.
Ironic. The ruling class thought they were learning from history, making concessions to avoid losing everything. But by failing to back the tsar they were sowing the seeds for their own crisis of legitimacy. By getting rid of the tsar they were demonstrating that anything was possible. The Provisional Government in contrast remained exactly that, provisional. It lacked the traditional basis of authority that 300 years of Romanov Tsars enjoyed.
Why was the war so important? Mass urban discontent could have been contained by force and liberals were always wary of unleashing a revolution. This happened in 1905. What was different about 1917 was the condition of the army. The loyal soldiers (and importantly the upper-class officers) of 1914 no longer existed by 1917. In addition, the bulk of the reliable fighting force was on the front line. They did not mutiny. The Tsar was brought down by the unreliable garrison troops in Petrograd. Most of the country was quiet. Reliable soldiers might have been found on the front line to support the Tsar.
|
The key factor was that the ruling class decided to abandon Nicholas.
They feared revolution so much that they were prepared to make this ultimate concession. It wasn’t so much the fact of a revolutionary situation that led to the downfall of the Tsar; rather it was the expectation that revolution was inevitable. But this was ultimately the fault of the Tsar himself failing to make concessions to the Duma, allowing the Tsarina (Rasputin) to govern…etc. ‘What the generals and politicians had done was unleash the revolution they had sought to prevent…The people knew what they wanted; the elite did not know how to hold on to what it had. Once the Tsar was removed, the state was decapitated, authority collapsed, the whole structure of society began to unravel, and a climate of disobedience developed. It was allowed to develop by paralysis at the top. The problem was that there was really no one at the top at all, there was a vacuum: no one was prepared to take the responsibility and use force to restore law and order.’ Graham Darby The Russian Revolution p.86 |
|
So why did the Provisional Government fail? Four identifiable aspects:
Failings of the Provisional Government (or better still, the inherent weaknesses of the Provisional Government)
Perhaps this category of explanation is unfair. In reality, the Provisional Government failed to achieve the impossible. From February, central government was drained of power. With the Tsar gone, the power structure collapsed. They had to act quickly but failed to do so. How could they? The people’s demands were revolutionary, but the Provisional Government was not. They were middle class (liberal) politicians. The June offensive was meant to restore government prestige. Kerensky fell out with Kornilov and alienated the army. The Kadets who supported the war, opposed the call for a Constituent Assembly, opposed state control of the economy and would not redistribute land to the peasants largely dominated the Provisional Government!
It is remarkable that the Provisional Government lasted as long as it did.
The peoples’ Revolutions - In the absence of coercion, there was no authority.
The role of the Bolsheviks
When the Provisional Government failed to meet the increasingly radical demands of the people, the people set up their own committees to take direct action. However, these committees could not end the war, restore the economy or ensure food supplies throughout Russia. This is why the leadership of the Bolsheviks must be central to any explanation of October 1917.
In February 1917 a successful Bolshevik revolution looked unlikely. The Soviets were dominated by the Mensheviks and SRs, then Bolsheviks had only 10 000 members. Lenin’s return and his April Thesis would prove to be valuable later but generally the Bolsheviks made little progress. The July Days seemed to demonstrate how impotent the Bolsheviks were. Yet from this time the influence of the Bolsheviks grew.
The Kornilov Affair proved to be real turning point. By October 1917 membership stood at 300 000. People turned to the Bolsheviks because they had not been tainted by the failure of the provisional government. The Menshevik unwillingness to form a Soviet government cost them much support. As Wildman has argued, the Bolsheviks did not offer ‘a new vision of the revolution but rather a more speedy realisation of the original one’. Or as Darby puts it, ‘The Bolsheviks and their propaganda did not create the people’s programme, they merely articulated it.’ (p. 104)
The role of Lenin was central (see previous notes on Lenin’s role in 1917). His skill as a ruthless politician is acknowledged by all. His ability to persuade the Bolshevik Central Committee on the 10th October (10 votes to 2) that revolution was imminent, was critical. But also don’t forget his theoretical contribution. Kerensky’s attempted suppression of the Bolsheviks on the 24th October forced the party to defend itself.
What followed was not a coup d’état, it was a response to a popular movement.
- Failings of the Provisional Government
- The people’s revolution; people ‘ready to sacrifice their lives’
- The role of the Bolsheviks
- Lenin
Failings of the Provisional Government (or better still, the inherent weaknesses of the Provisional Government)
- Failed to impose their authority on the Soviets (How could they?)
- Were too divided
- Failed to call the Constituent Assembly (to gain authority in an election they would lose?)
- Wanted to (had to?) continue the war
- Did not redistribute land (but, how could they?)
- Could not manage the economy
Perhaps this category of explanation is unfair. In reality, the Provisional Government failed to achieve the impossible. From February, central government was drained of power. With the Tsar gone, the power structure collapsed. They had to act quickly but failed to do so. How could they? The people’s demands were revolutionary, but the Provisional Government was not. They were middle class (liberal) politicians. The June offensive was meant to restore government prestige. Kerensky fell out with Kornilov and alienated the army. The Kadets who supported the war, opposed the call for a Constituent Assembly, opposed state control of the economy and would not redistribute land to the peasants largely dominated the Provisional Government!
It is remarkable that the Provisional Government lasted as long as it did.
The peoples’ Revolutions - In the absence of coercion, there was no authority.
- The peasants believed that land should be owned by those who worked it. ‘The goals, methods and rhythm of peasants actions during 1917 were their own’ Acton. They had shown remarkable patience, but this was running out by October.
- The proletariat had many of their demands met by February revolution. But they became increasingly radicalised in 1917 largely because of rising prices and food shortages. The increasing number of strikes were largely defensive, and motives were largely economic. They were crying out for leadership.
- The most important group were the soldiers, who were largely ‘peasants in uniform’. Like the workers, the soldiers gained many improvements after February (e.g. representative committees). The Kornilov Affair destroyed any trust that the soldiers had and consequently there was an increasing tendency to refuse to obey orders. In the case of all three groups, the continuation of the war was critical.
The role of the Bolsheviks
When the Provisional Government failed to meet the increasingly radical demands of the people, the people set up their own committees to take direct action. However, these committees could not end the war, restore the economy or ensure food supplies throughout Russia. This is why the leadership of the Bolsheviks must be central to any explanation of October 1917.
In February 1917 a successful Bolshevik revolution looked unlikely. The Soviets were dominated by the Mensheviks and SRs, then Bolsheviks had only 10 000 members. Lenin’s return and his April Thesis would prove to be valuable later but generally the Bolsheviks made little progress. The July Days seemed to demonstrate how impotent the Bolsheviks were. Yet from this time the influence of the Bolsheviks grew.
The Kornilov Affair proved to be real turning point. By October 1917 membership stood at 300 000. People turned to the Bolsheviks because they had not been tainted by the failure of the provisional government. The Menshevik unwillingness to form a Soviet government cost them much support. As Wildman has argued, the Bolsheviks did not offer ‘a new vision of the revolution but rather a more speedy realisation of the original one’. Or as Darby puts it, ‘The Bolsheviks and their propaganda did not create the people’s programme, they merely articulated it.’ (p. 104)
The role of Lenin was central (see previous notes on Lenin’s role in 1917). His skill as a ruthless politician is acknowledged by all. His ability to persuade the Bolshevik Central Committee on the 10th October (10 votes to 2) that revolution was imminent, was critical. But also don’t forget his theoretical contribution. Kerensky’s attempted suppression of the Bolsheviks on the 24th October forced the party to defend itself.
What followed was not a coup d’état, it was a response to a popular movement.
|
|
|
Activity
Using the notes above and your textbook pages 111-116, complete the revision diagram 'Was it Lenin's Revolution?'.
Using the notes above and your textbook pages 111-116, complete the revision diagram 'Was it Lenin's Revolution?'.
Lesson 6 - The Bolsheviks consolidate their power - 1917-24
|
|
|
Activities
1. Using the sheets above and your textbook pages 117-25, explain how the Bolsheviks consolidated their power. Write three paragraphs: How the Bolsheviks used (1) coercion (force), (2) persuasion (control of ideas) and (3) consent (policies that gained them support).
2. Why did the Bolsheviks win the civil war? Draw up a table of Bolshevik’s strengths v Whites’ weaknesses.
3. Explain what the NEP did and why it helped to keep the Bolsheviks in power.
1. Using the sheets above and your textbook pages 117-25, explain how the Bolsheviks consolidated their power. Write three paragraphs: How the Bolsheviks used (1) coercion (force), (2) persuasion (control of ideas) and (3) consent (policies that gained them support).
2. Why did the Bolsheviks win the civil war? Draw up a table of Bolshevik’s strengths v Whites’ weaknesses.
3. Explain what the NEP did and why it helped to keep the Bolsheviks in power.
|
|
Matu 8 - Russian Revolutions - End of Unit Test
The test will cover the content of the six lessons on the Russian Revolutions. There will be four sections.
Section 1 will consist of series of factual questions requiring one- word answers. It will test your ability to accurately recall relevant factual information. The content will cover each of the six lessons and the answers will be found in the content of this website. The quiz (below) will help you.
Section 1 will consist of series of factual questions requiring one- word answers. It will test your ability to accurately recall relevant factual information. The content will cover each of the six lessons and the answers will be found in the content of this website. The quiz (below) will help you.
Section 2 will include a historical source that you will be expected to interpret. You may be asked for the meaning or the message and to explain it in a wider historical context. The questions will be particular to the sources chosen.
Section 3 will require you to describe something historical, for example a series of past events or the nature a political system in the past. As in previous tests the following level descriptors provide an indication of how marks will be awarded:
|
L1 = 0-2 marks
L2 = 3-4 marks L3 = 5-6 marks |
This answer is characterised by vague basic knowledge, little precise factual support, significant brevity and possible factual inaccuracy.
This answer is characterised by good knowledge, some precise factual support (names, places, dates etc.) and accuracy. This answer is characterized by excellent knowledge, multiple examples of precise factual support and accuracy. An award of 6 marks does not mean that the answer is flawless. |
Question type examples:
What were the main characteristics of the Russian Empire in 1900?
Describe the impact of the first world war on Russia .
What were the main characteristics of the Russian Empire in 1900?
Describe the impact of the first world war on Russia .
Section 4 will expect you to provide a coherent, well supported historical explanation that goes beyond a merely accurate, chronological ordering of events. The best answers will provide a well-structured, thematic account that relies on an analytical approach to the question that is well supported by accurate historical knowledge. The following level descriptors provide an indication of how marks will be awarded:
|
L1 = 0-3 marks
L2 = 4-7 marks L3 = 8-10 marks |
This answer is characterized by vague basic knowledge, no factual support, significant brevity, incoherence and factual inaccuracy.
This answer provides a single explanatory factor that is explained or multiple factors that are not explained. This answer is characterized by some understanding, but little or no factual support (names, places, dates etc.); the answer is likely to lack coherence and accuracy. This answer provides multiple explanatory factors each of which is explained. This answer is characterized by good understanding, and some precise factual support (names, places, dates etc.); the better answer in this range is likely to be highly coherent and historically accurate. |
Question type examples:
Explain why the Tsar was able to survive the 1905 revolution.
How did Lenin adapt the main features of Marxism?
Explain why the Tsar was able to survive the 1905 revolution.
How did Lenin adapt the main features of Marxism?