* Designated a subject of particular importance in the Anglophone history oral exam.
Matu syllabus reference - Seconde guerre mondiale : brosser un tableau général du déroulement de la guerre et situer les enjeux des grandes aires d’affrontements ; situer les grands accords de la guerre et la naissance de l’ONU. Matu syllabus
Matu syllabus reference - Seconde guerre mondiale : brosser un tableau général du déroulement de la guerre et situer les enjeux des grandes aires d’affrontements ; situer les grands accords de la guerre et la naissance de l’ONU. Matu syllabus
The causes of the Second World War
Lesson 1 - The First World War and its consequences
16-03-2020
All German governments after 1919 were violently opposed to the Versailles settlement, and tried to evade its provisions. While the frontiers in western Europe were formally accepted in 1925 under the Treaty of Locarno, there was no similar agreement to cover Germany's eastern frontiers. Germany refused to accept the creation of the Polish corridor and the loss of Danzig and a part of Upper Silesia as permanent features of the east European territorial settlement. Why did Germany feel so strongly about the Treaty of Versailles.
16-03-2020
All German governments after 1919 were violently opposed to the Versailles settlement, and tried to evade its provisions. While the frontiers in western Europe were formally accepted in 1925 under the Treaty of Locarno, there was no similar agreement to cover Germany's eastern frontiers. Germany refused to accept the creation of the Polish corridor and the loss of Danzig and a part of Upper Silesia as permanent features of the east European territorial settlement. Why did Germany feel so strongly about the Treaty of Versailles.
Activity 1
With reference to your knowledge of the terms of the Peace Treaties of 1919, explain why many, like the cartoonist Will Dyson, felt that another war would be likely by 1940? BBC Bitesize and John D Clare Walsh textbook - pp.90-91 |
The Versailles Peace Treaty 17th May 1919: Daily Herald - "PEACE AND FUTURE CANON FODDER” Published in the British Daily Herald on 17 May 1919, it shows "The Big Four" David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando and Georges Clemenceau (the Prime Ministers of Britain, Italy and France respectively), together with US President Woodrow Wilson, emerging after a meeting at Versailles to discuss the Peace Treaty. Clemenceau, who is identified by his nickname "The Tiger", is saying to the others: "Curious! I seem to hear a child weeping!". And there, behind a pillar, is a child in tears; weeping because he is going to be cannon fodder in 1940, it is labelled "1940 Class". In the European context, “1940 CLASS” refers to those who will be eligible for conscription in 1940. |
Other consequences of the First World War
The Treaty of Versailles between the Allies and Germany was a compromise agreement which pleased none of the parties involved. Marshal Foch, who had been the military commander-in-chief of the allied armies at the end of the war, said of the settlement with great bitterness, 'This is not peace. It is an armistice for 20 years’ There were good reasons why the French, despite their hard-earned victory in the war, should feel so vulnerable and so pessimistic by the end of 1919.
1. Withdrawal of the USA from the victorious wartime coalition The First World War could not have been won without the economic and military aid of the United States. However, the refusal of the American Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, or to take any active part in European or League of Nations diplomacy in the 1920s (see next lesson), left Britain and France to police the Versailles settlement alone. It also denied eastern Europe much needed economic aid and investment capital.
2.The Russian revolution and emergence of a Bolshevik government in late 1917 unleashed a new ideological war across Europe and further afield, which aimed to overthrow existing governments not by external aggression but by inciting revolution from within. In addition to existing problems, therefore, governments at the end of the war had a new set of enemies to face: Bolshevik Russia and the communist supporters it could mobilise in countries across Europe.
The Treaty of Versailles between the Allies and Germany was a compromise agreement which pleased none of the parties involved. Marshal Foch, who had been the military commander-in-chief of the allied armies at the end of the war, said of the settlement with great bitterness, 'This is not peace. It is an armistice for 20 years’ There were good reasons why the French, despite their hard-earned victory in the war, should feel so vulnerable and so pessimistic by the end of 1919.
1. Withdrawal of the USA from the victorious wartime coalition The First World War could not have been won without the economic and military aid of the United States. However, the refusal of the American Senate to ratify the Treaty of Versailles, or to take any active part in European or League of Nations diplomacy in the 1920s (see next lesson), left Britain and France to police the Versailles settlement alone. It also denied eastern Europe much needed economic aid and investment capital.
2.The Russian revolution and emergence of a Bolshevik government in late 1917 unleashed a new ideological war across Europe and further afield, which aimed to overthrow existing governments not by external aggression but by inciting revolution from within. In addition to existing problems, therefore, governments at the end of the war had a new set of enemies to face: Bolshevik Russia and the communist supporters it could mobilise in countries across Europe.
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3. With the collapse of the Habsburg and Romanov Empires, eastern Europe had become fragmented, divided up into a number of new, weak and unstable stales. The Baltic states, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary all faced serious economic problems.
Nationality issues also surfaced from communities with different cultures and languages which did not necessarily share the ambitions of the national majority. The new states owed their existence to the collapse of the Russian empire on the one hand and the defeat of Germany on the other. The revival of either or both of these great powers would threaten their existence. Consequently, eastern Europe remained an insecure and very vulnerable area throughout the interwar period. |
4. The Italian problem The other major European power who was opposed to the Versailles settlement was Italy, who described it as a 'mutilated peace'. Italy felt denied legitimate territorial gains, and the hostility and nationalist agitation that erupted as a consequence contributed considerably to Mussolini's rise to power and to his restless attempts to undermine European stability.
5. Economic instability Throughout the 1920s, European powers experienced economic difficulties arising from the disruption which war had caused to international trade and to financial markets. While the Wall Street Crash in 1929 undoubtedly stemmed from American domestic economic policies, its impact on Europe through the Depression it triggered off was magnified as a result of economic weaknesses brought about by the war.
Many historians have drawn attention to what they see as a '20-year crisis' in Europe. They have pointed out that the First World War left Europe in a state of chronic instability which was highly likely to result in another major upheaval. This is the basis of the Thirty years' war thesis which argues that the First World War brought about a complete breakdown of European order which resulted in a succession of international crises ending only with the outbreak of another world war.
5. Economic instability Throughout the 1920s, European powers experienced economic difficulties arising from the disruption which war had caused to international trade and to financial markets. While the Wall Street Crash in 1929 undoubtedly stemmed from American domestic economic policies, its impact on Europe through the Depression it triggered off was magnified as a result of economic weaknesses brought about by the war.
Many historians have drawn attention to what they see as a '20-year crisis' in Europe. They have pointed out that the First World War left Europe in a state of chronic instability which was highly likely to result in another major upheaval. This is the basis of the Thirty years' war thesis which argues that the First World War brought about a complete breakdown of European order which resulted in a succession of international crises ending only with the outbreak of another world war.
Activity 2
Watch the David Reynolds film, an extract from his documentary 'The Long Shadow'. Make some outline notes about how nationalism presented problems with the break of the old empires like Austria-Hungary.
Create a revision diagram for the '20-year crisis'. You need six points in your diagram, each of which you need to explain with examples:
1. The Treaty of Versailles, 2. Withdrawal of the USA , 3. The Russian revolution, 4. Collapse of the Habsburg and Romanov Empires 5. The Italian problem, 6. Economic instability.
Watch the David Reynolds film, an extract from his documentary 'The Long Shadow'. Make some outline notes about how nationalism presented problems with the break of the old empires like Austria-Hungary.
Create a revision diagram for the '20-year crisis'. You need six points in your diagram, each of which you need to explain with examples:
1. The Treaty of Versailles, 2. Withdrawal of the USA , 3. The Russian revolution, 4. Collapse of the Habsburg and Romanov Empires 5. The Italian problem, 6. Economic instability.
Lesson 2 - The League of Nations
17-03-2020
17-03-2020
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Activity 1 - Watch the video 'International Relations, Weaknesses in the foundation and structure of the League of Nations'. What were the main structural weaknesses of the League of Nations?
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Activity 2 - Watch the video International Relations, The League of Nations in the 1920s'. How did the actions of Britain and France undermine the Treaty of Versailles?
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Links: John D Clare on the weaknesses of the League and BBC Bitesize
The League of Nations under pressure - Manchuria and Abyssinia
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Activity 3 - Watch the two films above about the Manchurian and Abyssinian crises and consider the diagrams. Write 300-400 words explaining why the League of Nations gradually lost influence in the 1930s.
Conclusion
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Activity 4 - Watch the film extract from the People's Century.
Explain, with examples, how the dominant mood of Europe in the interwar years was one of pacifism and a desire for disarmament. Why in the 1930s did the rise of Hitler and Mussolini present serious problems for the League of Nations? Churchill is shown in the film warning that war was coming. Why did so many people continue to believe war could be avoided? For your revision keep a copy of this diagram 'Why did the League of Nations fail?' |
Lesson 3 - Hitler's foreign policy
23-03-2020
23-03-2020
The important long-term structural problems caused by the First World War and the failure of the international system of peacekeeping embodied by the League of Nations, can only partly explain the outbreak of war in 1939. As always in history, the actions of human participants (human agency) must always be considered a part of the explanation. In the case of the Second World War, the actions of one man in particular were particularly important, Adolf Hitler.
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Begin by watching this overview film above. Next you need your textbook 258-72. Either download or copy the table below 'Hitler's Foreign Policy and Europe's Response'. Complete the table as you work your way through your textbook and text/films below.
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John D Clare has an alternative eight steps to war - https://www.johndclare.net/RoadtoWWII3.htm
1. German armed forces to be limited - pp.258-9
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2. Demilitarized Rhineland - pp.260-1
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3. Anschluss Forbidden - p.263
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(Above) A gallery of pro-Anschluss Nazi propaganda. (Right) An English cartoonist has a rather different perspective.
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4. The Sudetenland - p.266-7
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5. The Polish Corridor - p.271-2
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The precipitant cause of the Second World War was the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (Nazi-Soviet Pact) in which they agreed not to attack each other and to the division of Poland between them.
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Lesson 4 - Was appeasement the right policy?
24-03-2020
24-03-2020
The policy of appeasement was the policy of making concessions to the dictatorial powers in order to avoid conflict, as carried out by Anglo-French foreign policy during the 1930s.
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Activity 1 - Why appeasement?
Consider the reasons given for appeasement in the diagram opposite. Identify examples of political reasons, economic reasons, cultural reasons and military reasons. Appeasement became indelibly associated with Conservative Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. Appeasement was a controversial policy at the time. It is still controversial today. There are two main views: |
• It was the wrong policy because it encouraged Hitler. Chamberlain’s critics say that it simply encouraged Hitler’s gambling. They claim that if Britain or France had squared up to him at the start, he would have backed off. Peace would have been secured.
• It was the right policy because Britain was not ready for war. Chamberlain’s defenders say it was the only policy available to him. They say that to face up to Hitler Chamberlain had to be prepared to take Britain into a war. All the evidence available to Chamberlain told him that Britain was not ready. Public opinion was against it - his own civil service advisers had told him this. Important countries in the empire were against it. The USA was against it. And most importantly, Britain’s armed forces were not ready. They were badly equipped and had fallen far behind the Germans.
Activity 2 - Consider the following sources. To what extent do they support the view that appeasement at Munich bought the UK valuable time?
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Activity 3 - Contrast these newspaper sources. How do they provide different contemporary views of the policy of appeasement?
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Conclusion on the causes of WWII
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World War II
Lesson 5 - The War in Europe 1939-40
30-03-2020
30-03-2020
For this section of the syllabus it is particularly important that you refer to your textbook Chapter 10, The World at War. The Matu syllabus is particularly vague and subject matter potentially endless, it is therefore important that the get a good chronological overview of the war. There are plenty of documentary materials online which can also help. On my website this one hour overview from People's Century is a good place to start, Apocalypse is a Franco-Belgian production which uses colourised archive footage and the 1973 World at War is considered to be one of the greatest documentary series ever made.
Why did Germany do so well in the beginning?
The answers to this question reveal that Hitler learned the lessons of the First World War more creatively than the Allies. France and Britain adopted defensive strategies, relying in France's case on the Maginot Line and in Britain's case on the Channel and a naval blockade of Germany. Hitler, like Schlieffen, knew the dangers of a two-front war for Germany and avoided it much more successfully than the High Command in 1914. The conquest of Poland in September 1939 was carried out without the intervention of France or Britain. The Nazi-Soviet Pact kept Russia from interfering in the astounding conquest of western Europe in May-June 1940. The German invasion of the USSR in June 1941 admittedly left an undefeated Britain in the West, but Britain was not, at that time, able to inflict much damage on Germany. Hitler did not have to face a two-front war until D-Day (June 1944), unless we count the Allied invasion of Sicily which took place in July 1943.
German forces in western Europe in May 1940 were roughly equal in size to those of the Allies. French tanks were supposedly better than Hitler's, but Hitler had more airplanes. The crucial difference was that Hitler used airplanes, tanks (fitted with radio, unlike the French ones) and motorised infantry in rapid, coordinated thrusts: the technique called blitzkrieg, or lightning war
What were the consequences of Germany’s early successes?
German forces defeated Poland within weeks. The Blitzkrieg tactics overwhelmed the Polish Army. The Soviet Union subsequently invaded the Eastern half of Poland as agreed in a secret deal with Germany. Poland’s geographical isolation from Britain and France meant that there was no practical assistance to be offered. Having secured his Eastern flank, Hitler’s attention turned to Western Europe.
Why did Germany do so well in the beginning?
The answers to this question reveal that Hitler learned the lessons of the First World War more creatively than the Allies. France and Britain adopted defensive strategies, relying in France's case on the Maginot Line and in Britain's case on the Channel and a naval blockade of Germany. Hitler, like Schlieffen, knew the dangers of a two-front war for Germany and avoided it much more successfully than the High Command in 1914. The conquest of Poland in September 1939 was carried out without the intervention of France or Britain. The Nazi-Soviet Pact kept Russia from interfering in the astounding conquest of western Europe in May-June 1940. The German invasion of the USSR in June 1941 admittedly left an undefeated Britain in the West, but Britain was not, at that time, able to inflict much damage on Germany. Hitler did not have to face a two-front war until D-Day (June 1944), unless we count the Allied invasion of Sicily which took place in July 1943.
German forces in western Europe in May 1940 were roughly equal in size to those of the Allies. French tanks were supposedly better than Hitler's, but Hitler had more airplanes. The crucial difference was that Hitler used airplanes, tanks (fitted with radio, unlike the French ones) and motorised infantry in rapid, coordinated thrusts: the technique called blitzkrieg, or lightning war
What were the consequences of Germany’s early successes?
German forces defeated Poland within weeks. The Blitzkrieg tactics overwhelmed the Polish Army. The Soviet Union subsequently invaded the Eastern half of Poland as agreed in a secret deal with Germany. Poland’s geographical isolation from Britain and France meant that there was no practical assistance to be offered. Having secured his Eastern flank, Hitler’s attention turned to Western Europe.
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In May 1940, German troops attacked the Netherlands, Belgium and France. The British Army was forced to abandon the Continent. As the German advance briefly paused, over 300,000 British and French troops were rescued from the beaches in Operation Dynamo at Dunkirk and taken to Britain to fight another day. As German troops closed in on Paris, the British and French governments discussed the idea of uniting their nations in a Franco-British Union to sustain ‘France’ even through military defeat. This embryonic proposal of European union came to nothing and the French Government collapsed soon after. General de Gaulle escaped to London and assumed leadership of the ‘Free French’; those who had escaped and those who were determined to continue the struggle from France’s overseas territories. Marshal Petain stayed in France as head of a Nazi controlled puppet state which as throughout all Nazi occupied territories was to be economically exploited for the German war effort and from which the Jewish population would be transported to concentration camps.
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Activity - Was Churchill right to fight on after Dunkirk? The historical problem of 2020 vision.
'Dunkirk has been a miracle of deliverance, achieved by valour, by perseverance, by perfect discipline, and resourced by skill and unconquerable fidelity.' Winston Churchill, 4 June 1940.
In Britain during any time of national crisis you are likely to hear references to the 'Dunkirk Spirit'. In the last couple of years with Brexit and now with Covid-19, popular nationalism in Britain has routinely called upon this example of British exceptionalism. According to the dictionary, 'Dunkirk spirit' means 'stoicism and determination in a difficult or dangerous situation, especially as displayed by a group of people.
for example: "Yorkshire flood victims showed the Dunkirk spirit as they battled the rising water"'.
But what was the reality of Dunkirk? Even Churchill himself said in June 1940 that 'we must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory. Wars are not won by evacuations...' Of course, Dunkirk was a military defeat, turned into a propaganda triumph, but more than this, the British decision to fight on was not inevitable. When Churchill said in one of his most famous speeches (below) 'we shall never surrender', it was only after closely argued decisions had been reached elsewhere. There were many people at the time, some of whom were very influential, who thought the decision to fight on was mistaken. There are still some who continue to argue today, that Britain (and the World) would have better off surrendering in 1940 before the war had really got started.
In Britain during any time of national crisis you are likely to hear references to the 'Dunkirk Spirit'. In the last couple of years with Brexit and now with Covid-19, popular nationalism in Britain has routinely called upon this example of British exceptionalism. According to the dictionary, 'Dunkirk spirit' means 'stoicism and determination in a difficult or dangerous situation, especially as displayed by a group of people.
for example: "Yorkshire flood victims showed the Dunkirk spirit as they battled the rising water"'.
But what was the reality of Dunkirk? Even Churchill himself said in June 1940 that 'we must be very careful not to assign to this deliverance the attributes of a victory. Wars are not won by evacuations...' Of course, Dunkirk was a military defeat, turned into a propaganda triumph, but more than this, the British decision to fight on was not inevitable. When Churchill said in one of his most famous speeches (below) 'we shall never surrender', it was only after closely argued decisions had been reached elsewhere. There were many people at the time, some of whom were very influential, who thought the decision to fight on was mistaken. There are still some who continue to argue today, that Britain (and the World) would have better off surrendering in 1940 before the war had really got started.
Begin by watching this series of four short film extracts.
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Film 1 - Pathe newsreel shown in UK cinemas in June 1940
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Film 2 - Mrs. Miniver 1942 feature film includes a Dunkirk subplot
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Film 3 - Dunkirk scene from 2007 Atonement (Dir. Joe Wright)
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Film 4 - Gary Oldman as Winston Churchill in 2017 (Dir. Joe Wright)
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Questions
1. Are films 1 and 2 propaganda films? Explain your answer careful with reference to the content of both films.
2. How does film 3, Atonement, deliberately challenge the myth of Dunkirk?
3. Is the extract from the 'Darkest Hour' useful? or is it just entertainment? Again explain your answer.
4. Advising Churchill - The details of this activity are in Walsh 281 and before you begin watch Andrew Marr's documentary below: 1940 - Dunkirk and Churchill's decision.
1. Are films 1 and 2 propaganda films? Explain your answer careful with reference to the content of both films.
2. How does film 3, Atonement, deliberately challenge the myth of Dunkirk?
3. Is the extract from the 'Darkest Hour' useful? or is it just entertainment? Again explain your answer.
4. Advising Churchill - The details of this activity are in Walsh 281 and before you begin watch Andrew Marr's documentary below: 1940 - Dunkirk and Churchill's decision.
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It is June 1940. You were in France and saw the defeat of the BEF and now you have news of the surrender of France. What would you advise the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, to do now? The choices are: surrender, fight on or reach some kind of agreement or alliance with Hitler. Present the arguments for and against each option. You will need to think about: the power of the German army, the state of the British army, the resources available to Hitler from the territories he has conquered. Now say which option you recommend. Remember you are trying to think about this from the 1940 point of view, not that of 2020. |
Lesson 6 - The Battle of Britain and the Battle of the Atlantic
31-03-2020
31-03-2020
After Dunkirk, Hitler made preparations for Operation Sealion; the German plan to invade Britain. To succeed, Germany would first have to achieve air superiority by destroying the fighter planes of the Royal Air Force. The Battle of Britain was to be a decisive defeat for Hitler, the first of the War. Throughout August and September, 1940, the two air forces fought each other over Southern England until German losses became unsustainable and the invasion of Britain was postponed. This victory was, in Churchill’s phrase, Britain’s “finest hour”, achieved by pilots from Britain, the British Empire, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France and other Allied nations. The strategic implications of victory were crucial as Britain’s survival provided the Allies with an impregnable base beyond the reach of Germany’s superior land forces. From this base the Allies could develop their air power to eventually achieve air supremacy in Western Europe. The victory also provided hope for the people of occupied Europe and bought time to develop the Alliance that would defeat Hitler.
Why did Britain win the Battle of Britain?
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Activity 1
Using the information on pages 282-3 of your textbook complete the following table which identifies four factors that help explain why Britain was able to win the Battle of Britain. In conclusion, which reason do you think was the most important? Explain your answer carefully. |
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Why did Britain initially lose but ultimately win the Battle of the Atlantic?
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The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest of the war. As we saw with the First World War, the maintenance of shipping between Europe and the Americas was critical to the survival of Britain. Initially, Germany seemed to have the advantage and the U-boats looked capable of knocking Britain out of the war. But eventually, between 1942 and 1943 the Allies seemed to be gaining the advantage.
Activity 2 Using your textbook pages 284-5 identify three important reasons why Germany was initially successful in the Battle of Atlantic and three reasons why Britain and her allies ultimately won. |
This is a wonderful interactive website all about the Battle of the Atlantic, but it uses Flash which many browsers are ceasing to use.
Lesson 7 - The war becomes global - 1. Pearl Harbor
06-04-2020
06-04-2020
Pearl Harbor and the war in the Pacific
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To some extent it might be argued that the Second World War actually began with Japan's invasion of China in 1937. As in the West, the Great Depression had resulted in the rise to power of a nationalist and militaristic government in Japan in the 1930s. The invasion of Manchuria in 1931 was merely the prelude to Japanese imperial ambitions in China and in south east Asia in General. (See map left)
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The Rape of Nanking
The war with China was a particularly brutal affair and a presage of the nature of the total war to come. The total number of civilians and prisoners of war murdered in Nanking during the first six weeks of the Japanese occupation was over 200,000. In one of the most infamous incidents thousands were led away and mass-executed in an excavation known as the ‘Ten-Thousand-Corpse Ditch’, a trench measuring about 300m long and 5m wide. Since records were not kept, estimates regarding the number of victims buried in the ditch range from 4,000 to 20,000. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East stated that 20,000 women were raped. Rapes were often committed in public during the day, sometimes in front of family members that were tied up and forced to watch. The women were then killed immediately after the rape, often through mutilation.
The war with China was a particularly brutal affair and a presage of the nature of the total war to come. The total number of civilians and prisoners of war murdered in Nanking during the first six weeks of the Japanese occupation was over 200,000. In one of the most infamous incidents thousands were led away and mass-executed in an excavation known as the ‘Ten-Thousand-Corpse Ditch’, a trench measuring about 300m long and 5m wide. Since records were not kept, estimates regarding the number of victims buried in the ditch range from 4,000 to 20,000. The International Military Tribunal for the Far East stated that 20,000 women were raped. Rapes were often committed in public during the day, sometimes in front of family members that were tied up and forced to watch. The women were then killed immediately after the rape, often through mutilation.
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History textbook controversies
At this time, many Chinese soldiers and civilians were killed or wounded by Japanese troops (the Nanking Incident). Documentary evidence has raised doubts about the actual number of victims claimed by the incident. The debate continues even today.
A Japanese School History Textbook published in 2005 Activity 1 - Watch the news report 'Japan's history revision'. Explain why the above extract from a Japanese school history textbook has been so controversial. |
Japan - US rivalry
Following the Japanese bombing of civilians in Shanghai during the early stages of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, many ordinary Americans were outraged. However, this outrage was not enough to shake the USA out of its isolationist stance. Beginning in 1935, the US government had passed a series of popular Neutrality Acts that were designed to ensure that the USA did not become involved in foreign conflicts, but Roosevelt had warned in his famous ‘quarantine speech’ in October 1937 (p.276) that the USA could not have 'complete protection' from the threat of war.
In September 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact (also known as the Three-Power Pact or Berlin Pact). This pact signalled greater cooperation, especially with regard to defence, and promised assistance if one member country was attacked. The pact was signed partially to deter the USA from intervening in the growing conflicts in Europe and Asia. Japan seized the opportunity caused by France’s surrender to occupy northern Indochina (modern-day Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam). The USA responded by imposing sanctions and reducing exports of vital resources such as oil and iron to Japan. When the Japanese advanced further south in Indochina in July 1941, the USA announced a total ban on exports. Furthermore, all Japanese assets in the USA were frozen. Roosevelt made clear that the sanctions would not be lifted until Japan agreed a peace treaty with China.
This development meant that, without retreating in Indochina and China, the only hope that Japan had of gaining the necessary resources to maintain its armed forces lay in the Philippines (a US possession), Malaya (a British colony) and the Dutch East Indies (a Dutch colony). Therefore, during the negotiations with the USA over the summer of 1941 to bring about an end to the sanctions, Japan planned coordinated attacks in South-East Asia with the planned assault on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
In September 1940, Germany, Italy and Japan signed the Tripartite Pact (also known as the Three-Power Pact or Berlin Pact). This pact signalled greater cooperation, especially with regard to defence, and promised assistance if one member country was attacked. The pact was signed partially to deter the USA from intervening in the growing conflicts in Europe and Asia. Japan seized the opportunity caused by France’s surrender to occupy northern Indochina (modern-day Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam). The USA responded by imposing sanctions and reducing exports of vital resources such as oil and iron to Japan. When the Japanese advanced further south in Indochina in July 1941, the USA announced a total ban on exports. Furthermore, all Japanese assets in the USA were frozen. Roosevelt made clear that the sanctions would not be lifted until Japan agreed a peace treaty with China.
This development meant that, without retreating in Indochina and China, the only hope that Japan had of gaining the necessary resources to maintain its armed forces lay in the Philippines (a US possession), Malaya (a British colony) and the Dutch East Indies (a Dutch colony). Therefore, during the negotiations with the USA over the summer of 1941 to bring about an end to the sanctions, Japan planned coordinated attacks in South-East Asia with the planned assault on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii.
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What was Japan hoping to achieve at Pearl Harbor?
The aim of the attacks on Pearl Harbor was to knock out the US Pacific Fleet in order to give the Japanese a free hand in South-East Asia. At 07:55 a.m. on 7 December, the first attack wave of 183 aircraft arrived at Pearl Harbor. A second wave of 170 aircraft was launched shortly afterwards. The attack on Pearl Harbor lasted only 90 minutes. During that time, 21 ships were destroyed or damaged, with nearly 2500 servicemen killed and just over 1000 injured. But crucially no aircraft carriers were destroyed. The formal Japanese declaration of war was not received by the US government until after the attacks on Pearl Harbor had ended. |
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When Italy and Germany declared war on the USA on 11 December, the USA responded by declaring war on them. The attacks on Pearl Harbor, along with Operation Barbarossa (the German invasion of the Soviet Union which had begun on the 22 June 1941 - below), essentially transformed what was then a European war into a global one.
Activity 2 - From isolationism to war
Read the textbook pages 275-8.
Explain how and why American isolationist policy gradually changed in the lead up to Pearl Harbor.
Read the textbook pages 275-8.
Explain how and why American isolationist policy gradually changed in the lead up to Pearl Harbor.
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Activity 3 - Did President Roosevelt let Pearl Harbor happen?
"I will go to my grave convinced that FDR ordered Pearl Harbor to let happen. He must have known." Vice Admiral Libby. This is one of the world's favourite conspiracy theories, but it also one that has engaged the attention of a number of serious historians. Watch the film opposite. You can also get plenty of more information from Wikipedia and Encyclopaedia Brittanica.
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Lesson 8 - The war becomes global - 2. The Eastern Front
07-04-2020
07-04-2020
Hitler prepared a huge army of 3 million men, 3,580 tanks and 1,830 aircraft for the invasion of Russia. Remembering the Russian defeats in 1914, the chaos which enveloped Russia for much of the interwar period and the wholesale slaughter of the upper ranks of the Red Army in the purges of 1937, it is not at all surprising that Hitler thought that 'we have only to kick the door in and the whole rotten edifice will collapse'. He understood that the huge size of the USSR made it difficult to defeat, but reasoned that if he could drive Stalin's forces out of European Russia the Communists would be forced to sue for peace. Even over the much greater distance, the German Army's blitzkrieg tactics were successful. Hitler's front line was 1,000 kilometres into Russia by the end of 1941 (see below).
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In Berlin on 4 October 1941 Hitler announced to his people that the Soviet enemy was beaten and would never rise again. This turned out to be one of Hitler’s most profound misjudgements. Over the next two years the Soviet Union proved to be the graveyard of the German war effort. Few historians now dispute that the Eastern Front was the critical battleground of the Second World War... the Soviet system organised a massive war effort which blunted, and then reversed, the tide of Germany victory.
British historian, Professor Richard Overy, writing in 2000
Why was 1941 a turning point?
In June 1941, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. Over 3 million German soldiers participated in what was the largest military assault in history. They were assisted by smaller contingents from Romania, Hungary and Italy. Within months this invasion force had advanced hundreds of kilometres, vastly extending the territory of German controlled Europe. Approximately 5.5 million Soviet soldiers were taken prisoner by the Germans during the War and of these 3.3 million died, or were murdered, in captivity.
In June 1941, Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. Over 3 million German soldiers participated in what was the largest military assault in history. They were assisted by smaller contingents from Romania, Hungary and Italy. Within months this invasion force had advanced hundreds of kilometres, vastly extending the territory of German controlled Europe. Approximately 5.5 million Soviet soldiers were taken prisoner by the Germans during the War and of these 3.3 million died, or were murdered, in captivity.
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However, Germany was unable to achieve victory; the Soviets were able to concede territory in order to buy time. Factories were moved east beyond the range of German planes and production steadily increased. In an ever more destructive war of attrition the Soviets could replace troop losses at a rate the Germans could not match.
During the first winter of the campaign the Soviets halted the German advance and over the following year fought bitterly to turn back the invaders. Following the devastating German defeat at Stalingrad in January 1943, the Red Army began to drive the Germans back in a series of emphatic victories. 75% of Germany’s total war casualties occurred on the Eastern Front where all restraints were abandoned in what had become a war of annihilation. |
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Activity
Your textbook is detailed enough on the events on the Eastern Front. Begin by watching this recent short news report which helps to explain the significance of Stalingrad, perhaps the key battle of the Second World War. Complete the focus task on page 289. It is basically a plan for a seven paragraph essay that simply explains why the Soviet Union won on the Eastern Front. Begin by reading the text 286-289 looking for examples of where the Soviet people, technology, industry, air force and leaders contributed to the victory. For each of the seven points try to include at least two pieces of factual evidence to support your answer. |
Lesson 9 - Total War
Easter 2020
Easter 2020
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The Second World War can only be described in superlatives; it was the most destructive war in history causing more deaths, and involving more countries, than any previous conflict. Six years of war had left Europe in a state of utter devastation. Europe experienced ‘total war’ on a terrifying scale, destroying lives not just where formal military conflict occurred but throughout civilian populations suffering bombing, occupation, persecution, exploitation and extermination. Hopeful ideas of human progress and the superiority of “European Civilisation” had already been battered by the horrors of World War One, the economic disasters of the 1930s, and the political extremism that followed. The liberation of the Nazi concentration camps exposed a further, barely comprehendible depth of industrialised cruelty.
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European civilian casualties
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Proportional global casualties
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Few countries in Western Europe were able to avoid the traumas of war. Between allied victory and axis defeat countries such as France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Denmark and Norway suffered invasion by Nazi Germany followed by occupation, exploitation, and eventually, liberation. The United Kingdom, though undefeated, endured the threat of invasion and the bombing of its cities. For Italy, war brought defeat, invasion and civil war as Axis and Allied forces fought across Italian territory. Spain, Switzerland, Sweden, Portugal and Ireland maintained varying degrees of precarious neutrality as war raged around them. It is not to belittle the scale of these events to acknowledge that the War in Western Europe was less destructive than in the East. Nazi racial ideology could accommodate a degree of respect for the peoples of Western Europe that was absent in the East where the conflict was a ‘war of annihilation’, carried out with the aim of destroying entire categories of people. As we have already seen, the same racial ideology also led to unprecedented atrocities being carried out in Japanese empire.
To get a visual sense of the numbers of casualties in World War II, watch this brilliant film or visit the interactive format.
To get a visual sense of the numbers of casualties in World War II, watch this brilliant film or visit the interactive format.
How similar was the Second World War to the First?
Some similarities are obvious. Both were 'total wars', involving civilians as well as combatants. Because both wars stretched nations' resources to the limit, the overwhelming strength of the USA was a crucial factor in determining the result. In both 1914 and 1940-41 Germany had startling initial successes but in the end could not hold out against the superior resources of their opponents.
Some similarities are obvious. Both were 'total wars', involving civilians as well as combatants. Because both wars stretched nations' resources to the limit, the overwhelming strength of the USA was a crucial factor in determining the result. In both 1914 and 1940-41 Germany had startling initial successes but in the end could not hold out against the superior resources of their opponents.
Some apparent similarities conceal important differences. Britain, France, the USA, Russia and Belgium fought together against Germany in both wars, but in the First they were joined by Serbia, Italy and Japan, and in the Second by Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Netherlands (neutral in the First World War). Turkey and Bulgaria joined Germany and Austria-Hungary in the First World War, while Italy and Japan changed to fight in alliance with Germany in the Second. The 1914-18 war was called a world war, and indeed there was fighting outside Europe - in the Middle East, Africa and on at sea. The 1939-45 war, however, was more genuinely a world war: more of Europe saw fighting, as did north Africa and the Atlantic Ocean. But this time there was also another war over a wide expanse of another part of the globe: the Pacific War from December 1941 to August 1945.
Clearly, the two wars were different for every country, but in the cases of Russia and Germany the differences are so great that they require comment: Hitler was initially more successful than the German High Command of the First World War, but his decision to fight on to the bitter end left his country shattered and divided. As for Russia, the early disastrous defeats must have looked like history repeating itself. However, the fight back of the Second World War was in complete contrast to the sequence of events leading up to the humiliating Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918.
Clearly, the two wars were different for every country, but in the cases of Russia and Germany the differences are so great that they require comment: Hitler was initially more successful than the German High Command of the First World War, but his decision to fight on to the bitter end left his country shattered and divided. As for Russia, the early disastrous defeats must have looked like history repeating itself. However, the fight back of the Second World War was in complete contrast to the sequence of events leading up to the humiliating Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of 1918.
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Civilians and Total War
There is a very good, visually interesting section of your textbook (298-316) which deals with how the war affected civilians. It deals with the topics of civilian conscription, women, propaganda, rationing and air raids, but it is very British. In order to balance the Anglocentric nature of the book, the following sources are useful. The film 'The Home Front...' is a whole series of 20 minute films dealing the civilian war using film shot by the civilians themselves in Britain and Germany. It's quite old now but I've always found the material interesting. |
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The 10th of June - Lidice 1942 and Oradour-sur-Glane 1944
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Lidice, a small village in Czechoslovakia, was destroyed June 10, 1942. After the assassination on Reinhard Heydrich, May 27, 1942, the village was razed to the ground. 173 men were shot dead, women and most of the children were transported to concentration camps. There was no 'reason' why Lidice was chosen.
On the same day, two years later at Oradour- sur-Glane in France, 642 of its inhabitants, including women and children, were massacred by a German Waffen-SS company. There was no 'reason' why Oradour was chosen. Neither village was rebuilt and both are memorials today. |
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The Holocaust
In March 1945 Red Army soldiers entered Auschwitz; on 4 April, US soldiers arrived at the small camp of Ohrdruf where 3,000 Jews had been murdered four days before the liberators arrived. Generals Eisenhower and Patton were with them and Lewis Weinstein, one of the US soldiers, described their reactions: 'I saw Eisenhower go to the opposite side of the road and vomit. From a distance I saw General Patton bend over, holding his head with one hand and his abdomen with the other. I suggested to General Eisenhower that cables be sent immediately to President Roosevelt, Churchill and de Gaulle, urging them to send representatives.' |
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There was no need: as the Allied armies moved into Germany in the last weeks of the war the full extent of the Holocaust became visible. The British saw the awful facts in their newspapers after reporters entered Belsen with British forces on 15 April 1945. It should not have been news to the world's public. Nazi persecution of the Jews in Germany before the war was well-known. The 'Final Solution' began in 1941 when the expanding German Reich found itself ruling over many millions of Jews in Poland and Russia. The real figures for those killed were not known with any degree of accuracy until years later: 6 million Jews, 3 million non-Jewish Poles, 3 million Russian prisoners-of-war, a million gypsies and hundreds of thousands of homosexuals and people with disabilities.
In 1945 news of the Holocaust had two effects: firstly, the Allies were not inclined to be merciful to the Nazis and the German people; secondly, it helped to put an end to the belief that Europeans were more civilised and culturally advanced than other peoples.
In 1945 news of the Holocaust had two effects: firstly, the Allies were not inclined to be merciful to the Nazis and the German people; secondly, it helped to put an end to the belief that Europeans were more civilised and culturally advanced than other peoples.
Activity
Read the sheet 'World War II - Total War'. Download and complete the table comparing the First and Second World Wars as 'Total Wars'. You will need your earlier activity on World War I as a total war.
Read the sheet 'World War II - Total War'. Download and complete the table comparing the First and Second World Wars as 'Total Wars'. You will need your earlier activity on World War I as a total war.
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Conveniently enough John Green's new European Crash Course History has this week just arrived:
Lesson 10 - The defeat of Germany and Japan
27 04 2020
27 04 2020
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The best book I have ever read about the Second World War was written by Antony Beever. It is about 1000 pages long. The best documentary is about 26 hours long. And that's the problem. The war is historically so significant it is hard to summarise without leaving out what would be - in any normal times - an historically significant event. We have already focused on the war in west and on the Eastern Front. To conclude, we need to include the south.
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El Alamein 1942
Operation Torch 1942
Invasion of Sicily 1943
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Activity 1.
The map above is taken from your textbook page 292. Using the information contained within it, complete the revision timeline below. You do not need to include all the information, but you should try to balance information from each of the three theatres: war in the west, south and east. Where the films or map do not provide enough information, a little additional research may be necessary. For example, I have provided additional information to get you started, which includes some information from previous lessons.
The map above is taken from your textbook page 292. Using the information contained within it, complete the revision timeline below. You do not need to include all the information, but you should try to balance information from each of the three theatres: war in the west, south and east. Where the films or map do not provide enough information, a little additional research may be necessary. For example, I have provided additional information to get you started, which includes some information from previous lessons.
Download the revision timeline template here. Remember to download and save your own copy before editing.
Operation Overlord - D-Day
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Stalin had been promised a second front in the West since 1942. Operation Torch at the end of 1942 had revealed that the Americans lacked the experience, to launch an invasion of German occupied Europe. The war in north Africa, Italy and the Balkans, the Battle of the Atlantic, as well the bombing campaigns had provided support for the USSR, but they were not the second front Stalin had been expecting. Finally, in June 1944, the allies were ready to launch the biggest sea borne invasion force in history. It was a very high risk strategy that could easily have gone wrong. Steven Spielberg's 1998 film Saving Private Ryan was a cinematic attempt to show that the success of the allies in 1944 was not inevitable. On Omaha beach nothing much went to plan. Fortunately, the allies had greater success at other landing sites.
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Why were the Allies successful in the war with Germany?
1. Hitler made some bad decisions. He had been so successful up to the end of 1942 that he believed he knew better than his generals. He often overruled their advice. There are several instances: his turning aside from an all-out drive to get to Moscow in order to capture Kiev, in late 1941; his refusal to allow von Paulus to retreat from Stalingrad, leading to the humiliating surrender of 91,000 troops and 24 generals in February 1943 - a turning-point in the war. Hitler's meddling and increasing errors of judgement undermined the morale of his generals,
2. Germany was over-extended. Like the Kaiser, Hitler was denied his need for a short war. He was obliged to come to the rescue of his ally, Mussolini, in Yugoslavia and Greece - a distraction which pushed the start of the attack on Russia dangerously late into 1941. Once he had failed to crush Russia by the end of 1941, Hitler was committed to a war of attrition against a better-resourced enemy fighting on home territory. The extended German supply-lines, across inadequate roads in appalling winter weather, put German forces at a serious disadvantage. The demands of the Eastern Front drew resources away from North Africa so that by October 1942 Rommel had to face Montgomery at El Alamein with outnumbered forces. His defeat was another turning-point.
3. The enormous resources of the United States - in materials, money and morale - tipped the scales increasingly against the Axis powers. After Pearl Harbor (December 1941), Roosevelt could openly support the Allies: the USA provided about half of all the Allied war effort. The war cost them £84 million and they advanced another £12 million to the Allies.
4. The capacity of the USSR to resist and fight back. There are several elements to this, some of which are attributable to Stalin's regime and some of which are not:
2. Germany was over-extended. Like the Kaiser, Hitler was denied his need for a short war. He was obliged to come to the rescue of his ally, Mussolini, in Yugoslavia and Greece - a distraction which pushed the start of the attack on Russia dangerously late into 1941. Once he had failed to crush Russia by the end of 1941, Hitler was committed to a war of attrition against a better-resourced enemy fighting on home territory. The extended German supply-lines, across inadequate roads in appalling winter weather, put German forces at a serious disadvantage. The demands of the Eastern Front drew resources away from North Africa so that by October 1942 Rommel had to face Montgomery at El Alamein with outnumbered forces. His defeat was another turning-point.
3. The enormous resources of the United States - in materials, money and morale - tipped the scales increasingly against the Axis powers. After Pearl Harbor (December 1941), Roosevelt could openly support the Allies: the USA provided about half of all the Allied war effort. The war cost them £84 million and they advanced another £12 million to the Allies.
4. The capacity of the USSR to resist and fight back. There are several elements to this, some of which are attributable to Stalin's regime and some of which are not:
- The Five-Year Plans had succeeded in creating enormous industrial capacity which was turned to making armaments. Much of this was in new areas in the east, beyond the reach of the German invasion, or was moved there. By 1942 Soviet production of aeroplanes, tanks and guns was nearly double Germany's.
- The invasion of their country united the Russian people and drove both soldiers and civilians to superhuman efforts and sacrifices. Nearly 20 million Russians died in what they call The Great Patriotic War'.
- Stalin panicked at first, but when he found his nerve he was able to tap into this Russian patriotism quite effectively. He even allowed a religious revival in the USSR as a source of nationalism, and his personal standing was high.
- German forces were welcomed into western USSR in 1941: Ukrainians and Byelorussians had good cause to hate Stalin. However, Hitler's vicious racism made it impossible for the German army to capitalise on these internal Russian divisions. All were, to him, 'inferior people'. They were ferociously treated and soon ready to join groups of partisans in acts of sabotage and resistance against the German invaders. As in occupied western Europe, resistance groups may not have had a direct effect, but they did tie down troops who were thus not available for front-line fighting
Activity 2
Being asked to explain the defeat of Germany would be a classic question in an oral exam. Using my notes above, prepare an oral response that includes an introduction and conclusion and which can be delivered in 7 minutes maximum.
Being asked to explain the defeat of Germany would be a classic question in an oral exam. Using my notes above, prepare an oral response that includes an introduction and conclusion and which can be delivered in 7 minutes maximum.
How was Japan defeated?
Textbook 295-7
Textbook 295-7
The US policy after Pearl Harbor was to concentrate it support for Allies in the war in Europe. From 1941 to May 1943, the Japanese dominated the Pacific and the Far East, extending their empire 'Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere' into the Dutch East Indies, French Indo-China and as far as British Burma. (See map below) Although Japan had suffered some set backs, it wasn't until 1943 that tide of the war really began to turn. Aircraft carrier domination by the US, supported by a blockade of Japanese ports by submarines, gradually provided the control that was necessary to recapture the Japanese occupied territories. The refusal of Japanese soldiers to surrender and their willingness to kill themselves for the emperor (kamikaze) meant that the casualty rate was astronomically high. Harry Truman, the new US president, (Roosevelt had died in March 1945) decided to end the war rather than risk another year of American casualties. In August 1945 the decision was taken to drop two atomic bombs in quick succession. Japan surrendered on the 14th of August 1945.
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