Matu syllabus reference - La guerre froide : caractériser les grandes phases de l’affrontement Est-Ouest, de l’hostilité à la détente ; faire le bilan de l’implosion du monde communiste en 1989. Matu syllabus
Lesson 1 - The long-term origins of the Cold War
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According to Wikipedia, 'the Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies, the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc, after World War II. The period is generally considered to span the 1947 Truman Doctrine to the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union.' Historians actually disagree about when exactly the Cold War began. Some argue that the Cold War was inevitable after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 and throughout the 1920s and 30s, the two sides were already engaged in a proto-Cold War which culminated in Stalin's decision to side with Hitler against the capitalist democracies in 1939 (The Nazi-Soviet Pact).
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As we have seen, from December 1941 the USSR and USA joined the UK in a Grand Alliance to defeat the fascist European dictatorships in Europe and Japan. Relations between the powers remained good as long the war continued. The Yalta conference (see Lesson 2 below) of the USA, USSR and UK in February 1945 resulted in broad agreement about how the war would be concluded (e.g. USSR would join the war against Japan) and how the world would be reorganised once the was over (e.g. a United Nations Organisation would be established and a Joint Declaration of Liberated Europe guaranteed that the people of Europe would be allowed 'to create democratic institutions of their own choice'). After the defeat of Germany in May 1945 (see map) relations started to strain. |
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The joint meeting at Potsdam in July and August 1945 has been described as 'bad tempered affair'. The USA had kept the development of the atomic bomb a secret and no longer needed the support of the USSR to defeat Japan. The USSR demanded massive reparations from Germany (something Roosevelt had agreed to) had no intension of giving up the hard fought for lands that it now occupied. So did the Cold War really begin in 1947?
Activities
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Read this article from Steve Phillips Cold War and make a set of summary notes under three headings: Earliest origins, 1930s and World War II. This also serves as a useful revision of the history of the USSR and international relations in the interwar years.
Watch the first episode of the series Cold War. From my experience, watching a selection of key extracts from the series is an excellent way to prepare for a pending oral examination. The whole series is available to watch here.
Lesson 2 - The short-term causes of the Cold War 1945-47
04-05-2020
04-05-2020
What had the allies agreed at Yalta and Potsdam?
Poland's borders 1945
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Germany the occupied zones 1945
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Activity 1
Read the text above and watch the short video extracts on Yalta and Potsdam. Complete the 'focus task' on page 323 of your textbook, 'Why did the Allies begin to fall out in 1945?'
Read the text above and watch the short video extracts on Yalta and Potsdam. Complete the 'focus task' on page 323 of your textbook, 'Why did the Allies begin to fall out in 1945?'
The three sources of tension which caused the Cold War: Eastern Europe, Germany and European Reconstruction.
1. Eastern Europe
The Declaration on Liberated Europe, agreed at the Yalta conference in February 1945 had supposedly guaranteed democratic elections for all states which were to be liberated from Nazi Germany's control. In reality though, where the USSR was now in occupation, Stalin had no intension of giving up control of territories that were an essential 'buffer' to the defence of the USSR. Three times since 1914 Russia had been invaded through Poland. Across central and eastern Europe pro-Soviet regimes were imposed and where elections were held, they were fixed so as to give Communist Parties the necessary majority. (See map below and on p.324) By 1946 an 'iron curtain' had been imposed on Europe.
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Britain's inability to sustain support for anti-communist regimes in Greece and Turkey led President Truman to break with the established US policy of isolationism. In March 1947 he announced what became known as the Truman Doctrine, 'I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures.'
This signalled American determination to resist further Soviet expansion and to do so by the deployment of countervailing power, by what was called the policy of containment.
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2. Germany
Churchill and Roosevelt had met in Quebec in September 1944 and agreed a policy on the future of Germany. Named after Henry Morgenthau, United States Secretary of the Treasury, the Morgenthau plan was designed to deindustrialise Germany and to break her up into separate states. Supported by France and the USSR, this policy was intended to prevent Germany from ever being able to wage war again. In the words of Roosevelt 'I want the Germans to know that this time at least they have definitely lost the war'.
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A map of Germany after Morgenthau
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A future Germany as envisaged by Morgenthau
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As we have seen at the Potsdam conference, Germany was divided, but not in the way foreseen by Morgenthau. Such was the complete and absolute devastation of Germany, the Allies needed to take over the running of the country, with each of the four powers responsible for one sector each. Divisions between the former allies about how the sectors such be administered were apparent from the start. As you will have seen in the film above, the USSR plundered its eastern sector for reparations, whereas the western powers became concerned that a hungry and desperate German population might turn once again to political extremism.
Before the war, the English cartoonist David Low was a strident critic of the allied policy of appeasement. After the war he was a strident critic of the post-war occupation. The following cartoons were all published in 1945-46.
Before the war, the English cartoonist David Low was a strident critic of the allied policy of appeasement. After the war he was a strident critic of the post-war occupation. The following cartoons were all published in 1945-46.
Activity 2
Select one of the six cartoons above and paste it into your notes. Referring to details in the cartoon, explain the message that Low is trying to convey.
3. European Reconstruction
The third important postwar dispute within the grand alliance concerned European reconstruction. The Truman Doctrine had established a set of political policies, but if communism was to be 'contained', western European capitalism needed to be strengthened. As American General Lucius Clay stated, 'There is no choice between being a communist on 1,500 calories a day and a believer in democracy on a thousand'. The communist parties of France, Italy and other countries had established a strong position for themselves after the war. Until May 1947 the French and Italian communist parties were members of ruling coalitions, and communists participated in the government of other West European states as well. The American solution was the Marshall Plan. US Secretary of State, George Marshall's plan for a European Recovery Program, was made public in a famous Commencement Address at Harvard University on June 5th 1947.
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In sponsoring a European economic recovery which would contribute to political stability, Marshall aimed to undermine support for the communist left and to strengthen the political position of anti-communist parties and movements. By the time Marshall Aid came to an end, in 1952, the United States had spent some $13 billion, more than all previous US overseas aid combined. Unlike previous support during the war, Marshall Aid was not loans to be paid back but a grant, a gift for European countries to spend as they wished. If a Marshall Plan was attempted today (as some are suggesting is needed in a post-Covid-19 world and President Biden is attempting to pass) it would cost over $200b. But it wasn't just financial support. As the USSR had interfered in the 'elections' on central and eastern Europe, so now also did the Americans through the anti-communist, covert action of the CIA. (see film left)
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Initially, the USSR and central and eastern European countries applied for Marshall Aid. But at the Paris conference in July 1947 which was established to coordinate the funding, serious divisions emerged. The British and French insisted that decisions must be made by all European countries - east and west - together. The USSR considered this an unacceptable attempt by the western allies to interfere in the internal affairs of the communist regimes. The USSR withdrew from the talks and forced its satellite states in eastern Europe to do the same. This would have significant implications for Yugoslavia who refused to withdraw and for Czechoslovakia which had a genuine democratically elected communist government in coalition with non-communist parties. Tito's Yugoslavia was expelled from the Eastern Bloc and the communists seized absolute power in Czechoslovakia. These events persuaded the US Congress to release the funds for Marshall Aid.
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The Soviet response to the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan came in September 1947. The USSR established the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform), as a successor to the Comintern. In an important speech A.A. Zhdanov spoke of how the world had become divided into ‘two camps’ and how the USSR must defend itself from western imperialism. Comecon, the Soviet equivalent to Marshall Aid was made available for Eastern Bloc allies. |
Activity 3
Read the article by Geoffrey Roberts on the three important post-war disputes. Using the films and text above to help you, produce the text of a seven minute oral that addresses the question 'why did the Cold War begin between 1945 and 1947.
Read the article by Geoffrey Roberts on the three important post-war disputes. Using the films and text above to help you, produce the text of a seven minute oral that addresses the question 'why did the Cold War begin between 1945 and 1947.
Lesson 3 - The Berlin Blockade 1948-49
05-05-2020
05-05-2020
Causes of the Berlin Blockade
As we saw last lesson, issue of Germany was to highlight the different attitudes of the superpowers to the post-war world. The western zones, run by Britain, the USA and France, benefited from an influx of Marshall Aid. The eastern zone, run by the USSR, was plundered for resources, taken as reparations for war damage caused during the Second World War. Denied access to Marshall funds, living conditions in East Germany remained low and were slow to recover. By 1948 the difference in living standards between West and East Germany had become embarrassingly obvious. It was in Berlin that this difference was brought into sharp focus. West Berlin had become an island of prosperous capitalism in a sea of communism. As a symbol of this increasing prosperity, the western powers decided to introduce a new currency in their zones. The new Deutsche Mark would, it was hoped, provide economic stability and aid recovery.
As we saw last lesson, issue of Germany was to highlight the different attitudes of the superpowers to the post-war world. The western zones, run by Britain, the USA and France, benefited from an influx of Marshall Aid. The eastern zone, run by the USSR, was plundered for resources, taken as reparations for war damage caused during the Second World War. Denied access to Marshall funds, living conditions in East Germany remained low and were slow to recover. By 1948 the difference in living standards between West and East Germany had become embarrassingly obvious. It was in Berlin that this difference was brought into sharp focus. West Berlin had become an island of prosperous capitalism in a sea of communism. As a symbol of this increasing prosperity, the western powers decided to introduce a new currency in their zones. The new Deutsche Mark would, it was hoped, provide economic stability and aid recovery.
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Talks in Moscow and London in 1947 between the two sides over the future of Germany broke down as both sides put obstacles in the way of an agreement. The USA did not fear a revived Germany due to its geographical position; in fact it saw Germany's economic revival as essential to US financial interests. In contrast, the Soviet Union had much to fear from a German revival that might lead to a repetition of the suffering caused during the two world wars. Thus, when the new currency was introduced in West Berlin in June 1948, Stalin took action. All road, rail and canal links with West Berlin were severed. The blockade of the city was interpreted by the US government as the first stage of an attack on West Germany. This is unlikely. Stalin may have wished to starve the West out of Berlin, but he probably wanted to prevent the emergence of a separate West German state under US influence.
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The Airlift
The West responded to the blockade by organising an airlift of supplies into Berlin. All food and fuel supplies for over 2 million Berliners were flown into the city. It was an expensive operation executed with impressive organisational skill. Despite constant shortages, the city was able to survive.
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By May 1949 Stalin was forced to concede defeat and he lifted the blockade. The actions of the West had been successful, and it was an important boost to their morale after the events in Czechoslovakia.
The consequences
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Creation of NATO - The Berlin Crisis had illustrated the need for a more coordinated approach by the West in order to prepare for the possibility of Soviet aggression. In April 1949 the USA opened talks with Canada and the countries of western Europe with the aim of committing itself to a military alliance. The result was the setting up of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). This was an enlargement of the Brussels Treaty of 1948, which had been signed by Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg to establish military cooperation in the event of war. The significance of NATO was that it involved the USA in a military alliance during peacetime and, therefore, made it clear to the Soviet Union that there would be no return to isolationism. The guiding principle of NATO was that an attack on one of its members would be seen as an attack on all.
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A NATO command was set up to coordinate the defence of its members. Thus, NATO was a defensive organisation to protect the West and its interests. Stalin viewed the creation of NATO as a deliberately provocative action but he was able to enhance the capability of the Soviet Union by breaking the US nuclear monopoly. The Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb in August 1949, earlier than the West had expected. Despite this increase in Soviet power, the Berlin Crisis and the formation of NATO had taken any initiative in Cold War relations away from the USSR.
Creation of FDR and GDR. Another significant result of the Berlin Crisis was the end to any hope of an agreement between East and West over Germany. The temporary division of the country, laid down at Yalta and Potsdam, was now to become a more permanent feature. In August 1949 the three western zones of Germany joined together to become the Federal Republic of Germany (commonly known as West Germany). In response, the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in October. As capitalism flourished in West Germany, communism was imposed upon East Germany. It was a division that was to last for forty years.
Creation of FDR and GDR. Another significant result of the Berlin Crisis was the end to any hope of an agreement between East and West over Germany. The temporary division of the country, laid down at Yalta and Potsdam, was now to become a more permanent feature. In August 1949 the three western zones of Germany joined together to become the Federal Republic of Germany (commonly known as West Germany). In response, the Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) in October. As capitalism flourished in West Germany, communism was imposed upon East Germany. It was a division that was to last for forty years.
Activity
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(Above, two cartoons from July 1948. The German cartoon from the 17th of July says ‘Note after note — Fear not! We shall feed him so many strongly worded notes that he will no longer have any appetite for you.’ The British cartoon from 28th July says ‘The dauntless three ‘Let’s all be equally dauntless.’ To be ‘dauntless’ is to be heroically brave.)
- Compare and contrast the two cartoons as evidence about the Berlin crisis. Suggest reasons for their differences and refer to details in the cartoons in your answer.
- How useful are the cartoons as evidence about the Berlin crisis?
- Draw a revision diagram – spider diagram, mind-map or table - to show the main causes and consequences of the Berlin Airlift.
Lesson 4 - How did the Cold War develop in the 1950s? (Part 1)
11-05-2020
11-05-2020
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The next two lessons are designed to give you an overview of how the Cold War developed in the 1950s. We do not have time to go into detail, but it important that you are able to explain the main developments. I have identified four themes.
In this first lesson on the 1950s, we'll look at how the Globalisation of the Cold War resulted in the USA and USSR taking their ideological and geopolitical disputes to Asia (Korea 1950-53), South America (Guatemala 1954) and Africa (The Congo 1960). Secondly, we'll look at how the fluctuating relations of the 1950s can be plotting on a graph. The 1950s began and ended with relations between the superpowers as ice cold, but in the middle of the 1950s there was a significant thaw. The third feature of the 1950s the arms and space race and the fourth feature American insecurity, we'll examine in the next lesson. |
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Globalisation of the Cold War
Communist revolution China in 1949 is followed by conflict in Korea, Vietnam, Cuba and the Middle East. The Cold War becomes mixed up with the process of decolonisation. To some extent USA and Soviet policy makers could empathise with each other, but appreciating the mentalité of nations whose people, culture and history they did not understand would increase the challenge. |
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Globalisation of the Cold War also reflected in the clandestine actions of the KGB and CIA around the world e.g. Guatemala (1954) The Congo (1960, see decolonisation) and in the development of the U2 spy plane.
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Bell Curve relations
If the relations between the superpowers in the 1950s could be plotted on a graph, they may resemble the shape of a bell curve. With the Korean War (1950-53) Cold War relations are frigid, but things began to thaw with the death of Stalin (1953) and the 'spirit of Geneva' (1955) and Khrushchev’s ‘Peaceful coexistence’ rather than Zhdanov’s ‘Two Camps’ (1956). But events in Hungary in 1956 marked a turning point and the decade ended with Cuban revolution (1959) and the U2 spy plane incident (1960). The Korean War 1950-53 (Walsh 338-41) |
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In 1950 President Truman asked the National Security Council to produce a report on US Cold War policy. The result was a document known as NSC-68. This report saw the world in bipolar terms, highlighting the division of the world into two superpowers in conflict with each other. This situation, according to the report, had been brought about because of the USSR's aim to extend their authority in order to achieve domination over both Europe and Asia. This view saw the Soviet Union under Stalin as aiming for nothing short of world conquest. NSC-68 made recommendations for the direction of US foreign policy: it should do all it could to ensure non-communist regimes were viable as alternatives to communism and it should take military measures to meet the threat of communism. This policy was to be tested when the North Koreans invaded the South in 1950.
To the US government, concerned about the spread of communism in China and Indo-China, this was further evidence of a communist conspiracy directed from Moscow. US intervention followed within two days of the initial attack by the North. Truman, under pressure from anti-communist hysteria at home (see next lesson), authorised the sending of air and naval power to South Korea. The UN called on North Korea to withdraw its forces from the South and voted to send assistance to defend South Korea. The USSR, which had the power to veto any decision in the Security Council of the UN, was absent at this crucial moment in protest over the failure to admit communist China into the organisation, although it is also clear that Stalin deliberately allowed this Soviet absence. After his failure in Berlin, Stalin felt that encouraging the USA to engage in Korea (and China) could only bring positive consequences to the USSR.
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The course of war
The North's push into the South - Invading North Korean forces pushed southwards with great success, capturing Seoul, the capital of South Korea, and moving towards Pusan. By early September South Korean forces had been pushed back to Pusan but the North Korean army was now outnumbered by the arrival of US troops. Two hundred and sixty-one ships landed UN troops almost unopposed. This relieved the pressure on Pusan and within days the South Koreans were able to push North Korea's army back towards the 38th Parallel. In the face of superior US forces the army of North Korea started to disintegrate. On 30 September South Korean forces crossed the 38th Parallel and entered the North. As the UN forces moved closer to the Yalu River the Chinese became increasingly concerned about their own security. Mao may also have seen the war as an opportunity to replace Soviet influence over North Korea with that of China. |
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The Chinese forces entered the war in October and quickly forced the UN back. In early 1951 the communist forces pushed South of Seoul. To break the stalemate, MacArthur renewed his call for atomic bombs to be used against China. Truman sacked the general in April 1951. In July 1951, both sides were ready to open peace talks. The war continued for two years without significant change. The death of Stalin in March 1953 marked a turning point in Korea and in Europe (see below). On 27 July 1953 an armistice was finally agreed. China, North Korea and the USA signed the ceasefire but a state of war still exists between the two Koreas.
DeStalinisation and the 'spirit of Geneva' 1955 (Walsh 342, 400-1)
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The death of Stalin fundamentally changed the nature of the Cold War. On 15 May 1955, the USSR, together with the three Western powers occupying Austria (USA, Great Britain and France), signed a treaty which officially put an end to the state of war and established an alternative to the peaceful hostility that had characterised the end of the Berlin crisis in 1949. Austria was to be self-governing but strictly independent. The occupying forces left. Then a few months later at the Geneva Summit of July 1955 world leaders began discussions on arms negotiations, trade barriers, diplomacy and nuclear warfare. Finally, the new Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev spoke of a new policy of 'peaceful coexistence', denounced Stalinism and even went to Yugoslavia to settle differences with Tito.
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Poland and Hungary 1956 (Walsh 401-3)
In Central and Eastern Europe, with the death of Stalin and the start of de-Stalinisation, the populations of several satellite states attempted to free themselves from Soviet rule. In Poland, despite several violent clashes in Poznan, Gomułka became the new Polish leader and succeeded in introducing reforms that broke with Soviet orthodoxy.
In Central and Eastern Europe, with the death of Stalin and the start of de-Stalinisation, the populations of several satellite states attempted to free themselves from Soviet rule. In Poland, despite several violent clashes in Poznan, Gomułka became the new Polish leader and succeeded in introducing reforms that broke with Soviet orthodoxy.
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In Hungary, where the reformers tried to go much further the situation was very different. Some members of the Hungarian army fought on the side of the rebels. A new Hungarian government, led by Imre Nagy, supported the rebels. It called for the withdrawal of Soviet troops and abolished the one-party system before announcing Hungary’s unilateral withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and proclaiming the country’s neutrality. Between 4 and 8 November 1956, Khrushchev ordered the Red Army to put down the Hungarian Uprising by force. Many thousands of people were killed. The USSR was fortunate with the timing because the Western powers were deeply divided and weakened by the Suez Crisis, which was happening at the same moment. The West was in no position to react appropriately.
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U2 spy-plane incident 1960
The U2 spy-plane was developed by the CIA and first used in 1956. It could fly at very high altitudes, beyond the range of Soviet fighters. It was equipped with very powerful cameras and radio receivers. It flew over the USSR from bases in Pakistan and Norway, although the USA denied this. On May 1st 1960 Gary Powers was shot down in the USSR, he was captured and evidence of the spying was collected.
The U2 spy-plane was developed by the CIA and first used in 1956. It could fly at very high altitudes, beyond the range of Soviet fighters. It was equipped with very powerful cameras and radio receivers. It flew over the USSR from bases in Pakistan and Norway, although the USA denied this. On May 1st 1960 Gary Powers was shot down in the USSR, he was captured and evidence of the spying was collected.
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At first the US denied everything. They assumed that Powers and his plane had been destroyed. A few days later, Khrushchev publicly revealed Powers and the evidence and President Eisenhower was forced to admit that the USA had been spying. A meeting between the powers had been planned in Paris in May 1960 to discuss nuclear arms reduction and the future of Germany. The delegates arrived just days after Eisenhower admitted the spying. Khrushchev demanded an end to the American use of the U2 and a formal apology. He got the first demand but not the second. Khrushchev stormed out of the meeting. |
Activity
I have made a series of relatively short videos above, which taken together will take over an hour to watch. It is important that you watch them, they will give you an excellent overview of the dramatic events of the 1950s. It is also important to make a few notes to help you remember the most important aspects of the Cold War in the 1950s (and to prove to me that you watched them!)
When you have watched the films you will make a 'living graph' (a timeline with attitude!) either digitally (by downloading and editing) or by designing your own, to show how the relations between the USA and USSR developed over the 1950s.
I have made a series of relatively short videos above, which taken together will take over an hour to watch. It is important that you watch them, they will give you an excellent overview of the dramatic events of the 1950s. It is also important to make a few notes to help you remember the most important aspects of the Cold War in the 1950s (and to prove to me that you watched them!)
When you have watched the films you will make a 'living graph' (a timeline with attitude!) either digitally (by downloading and editing) or by designing your own, to show how the relations between the USA and USSR developed over the 1950s.
Lesson 4 - How did the Cold War develop in the 1950s? (Part 2)
12-05-2020
12-05-2020
As we saw yesterday, I have identified four themes to characterise the Cold War in the 1950s. Yesterday we looked at the Globalisation of the Cold War and the bell shaped graph line that can be used to plot the changing relationships between the superpowers. Today we'll look at the second two characteristics, the arms and space race and the impact that American insecurity had on domestic life in the USA.
The arms and space race (Walsh 343-346)
The 1950s was characterised by a nuclear arms race, the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) and a race to conquer space. Initially the superpowers on producing increasingly powerful weapons but later the focus shifted to delivery systems (missiles).
The USA stayed ahead with explosive power but fell behind with missile technology. The USSR launched the first man made satellite (Sputnik 1957) and put the first man in space (Yuri Gagarin 1961.)
The arms and space race (Walsh 343-346)
The 1950s was characterised by a nuclear arms race, the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) and a race to conquer space. Initially the superpowers on producing increasingly powerful weapons but later the focus shifted to delivery systems (missiles).
The USA stayed ahead with explosive power but fell behind with missile technology. The USSR launched the first man made satellite (Sputnik 1957) and put the first man in space (Yuri Gagarin 1961.)
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Insecurity, McCarthyism and popular culture.
Setbacks for containment in China and Korea led to the development of Eisenhower’s Domino Theory. There was fear that Communism could spread like a virus or like toppling dominoes. The actions of Senator McCarthy and HUAC created a climate of red scare (again cf.1920s). Fear of nuclear war became an everyday concern, made all the worse by Soviet leadership of the space race. Popular culture, and in particular cinema and television reflected these themes.
McCarthyism
McCarthyism was a campaign against Communists led by Senator Joe McCarthy between 1950 and 1954. Without offering proof, McCarthy accused hundreds of people, ranging from scientists to entertainers, of secretly working for the USSR. For a time McCarthy’s ‘witch-hunt’ was supported by the press and public opinion. No politician could afford to criticise him. During the campaign, over two thousand people were summoned to appear before the Senate’s House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). About 400 were tried and sent to jail. The ‘witch-hunt’ came to include those with liberal or left-wing opinions which were branded ‘un-American’. In 1953 McCarthy became chairman of the Senate’s Permanent Committee of Investigation. Televised hearings exposed him as a bully and a liar. In 1954 McCarthy’s methods were condemned by the Senate. He was forced out of public life.
Setbacks for containment in China and Korea led to the development of Eisenhower’s Domino Theory. There was fear that Communism could spread like a virus or like toppling dominoes. The actions of Senator McCarthy and HUAC created a climate of red scare (again cf.1920s). Fear of nuclear war became an everyday concern, made all the worse by Soviet leadership of the space race. Popular culture, and in particular cinema and television reflected these themes.
McCarthyism
McCarthyism was a campaign against Communists led by Senator Joe McCarthy between 1950 and 1954. Without offering proof, McCarthy accused hundreds of people, ranging from scientists to entertainers, of secretly working for the USSR. For a time McCarthy’s ‘witch-hunt’ was supported by the press and public opinion. No politician could afford to criticise him. During the campaign, over two thousand people were summoned to appear before the Senate’s House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). About 400 were tried and sent to jail. The ‘witch-hunt’ came to include those with liberal or left-wing opinions which were branded ‘un-American’. In 1953 McCarthy became chairman of the Senate’s Permanent Committee of Investigation. Televised hearings exposed him as a bully and a liar. In 1954 McCarthy’s methods were condemned by the Senate. He was forced out of public life.
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Activities
1. Again make sure you have watched the three Cold War extracts in this lesson. Make notes and add them to those you made yesterday.
2. Explain how the arms and space race developed in the 1950s. It is important that you identify key moments from the 1950s and learn them.
3. Explain the main features of McCarthyism and anti-communist propaganda and how this might have damaged the reputation of the USA in the 1950s.
1. Again make sure you have watched the three Cold War extracts in this lesson. Make notes and add them to those you made yesterday.
2. Explain how the arms and space race developed in the 1950s. It is important that you identify key moments from the 1950s and learn them.
3. Explain the main features of McCarthyism and anti-communist propaganda and how this might have damaged the reputation of the USA in the 1950s.
Lesson 5 - Berlin and Cuba
18-05-2020
18-05-2020
In 1961 a second Berlin crisis resulted in the building of the iconic symbol of the Cold War, the Berlin Wall. A year later, partly as a result of the Berlin crisis, the world came close to nuclear war on the island of Cuba. Both of these events were consequences of Cold War events we have already studied. The 'problem' of Berlin had been left unresolved after the blockade and airlift of 1948-9. The Paris talks designed to address the problem had collapsed in the aftermath of the U2 spy plane incident a year before in May 1960. The Cuban revolution led by Fidel Castro in 1959 was a culmination of a fierce five and a half year struggle to establish an independent Cuban state which overthrew the military dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista. Like many states in central America, Cuba had traditionally been a client state of the USA, its leaders no more than puppets placed to uphold US strategic and economic interest.
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Berlin Crisis - Walsh 407-409. Begin with the film and then get the key information from the presentation.
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Activity 1
Using the presentation, the film and your textbook, explain a) why the wall was built and b) what were the consequences for the Cold War.
Using the presentation, the film and your textbook, explain a) why the wall was built and b) what were the consequences for the Cold War.
We examine the Cuban missile crisis in two stages. Firstly we examine the causes, why Castro and Khrushchev decided to put the missiles on the island and why this presented a problem to the USA. (Walsh 346-52)
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Activity 2
This activity asks you to imagine that you were part of President Kennedy's group of advisors, the so-called 'Ex comm' committee. You are going to advise the President about how to respond. You can download the worksheet here.
You should begin by reviewing the presentation above and watching the short film - Cuban Crisis Ex comm - from the Cold War series. It is important that you consider the options available to you empathetically, as if you were present in October 1962 and not with advantage of hindsight.
This activity asks you to imagine that you were part of President Kennedy's group of advisors, the so-called 'Ex comm' committee. You are going to advise the President about how to respond. You can download the worksheet here.
You should begin by reviewing the presentation above and watching the short film - Cuban Crisis Ex comm - from the Cold War series. It is important that you consider the options available to you empathetically, as if you were present in October 1962 and not with advantage of hindsight.
Activity 3
a) Using the film and the information above, explain how Kennedy was able to resolve the crisis. b) Using you textbook page 352, outline the main consequences of the Cold War for the development of the Cold War. |
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Lesson 6 - Vietnam and Czechoslovakia
19-05-2020
19-05-2020
The shock of Cuban missile crisis had shaken the superpowers into a period of relaxation of tensions that would later be called 'detente'. But from 1964 the USA became gradually entangled in a continuation of Vietnam's war for independence, (See decolonisation) whilst the USSR faced a reemergence of the desire for greater independence in its satellite states last seen in Poland and Hungary in 1956.
Vietnam (Walsh 353-65)
We have already seen how in the late 1940s and early 1950s the USA gradually became committed to the support of France in Indochina in order to stop the spread of communism. This became known and the domino theory. The involvement of the USA in Vietnam can be shown in a series of steps, each of which increased the level of the USA's commitment.
We have already seen how in the late 1940s and early 1950s the USA gradually became committed to the support of France in Indochina in order to stop the spread of communism. This became known and the domino theory. The involvement of the USA in Vietnam can be shown in a series of steps, each of which increased the level of the USA's commitment.
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Activity 1
Watch the film above - Vietnam: Camera at War - it is my favourite documentary. Below are 10 photographs shown in the film. |
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a) Choose two photographs and explain why for you they are such powerful images. b) 'People remember the photographs of Vietnam, not the newsreels and films'. Why do you think the still image is often more powerful than film and video? c) Why do you think the US army blamed the media for the defeat in Vietnam? d) What other reasons help explain the cause of US defeat?
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Activity 2
Draw up a table to compare the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam and the USA. (Walsh 365 is also useful) This is also important for our topic 'decolonisation and the Third World'. The table covers political, economic and social consequences but not cultural. Can you suggest what might be some of the cultural consequences of the war in Vietnam?
Draw up a table to compare the impact of the Vietnam War on Vietnam and the USA. (Walsh 365 is also useful) This is also important for our topic 'decolonisation and the Third World'. The table covers political, economic and social consequences but not cultural. Can you suggest what might be some of the cultural consequences of the war in Vietnam?
Czechoslovakia 1968 (Walsh 404-6)
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As we saw earlier, in the post was period Czechoslovakia became a satellite state of the Soviet Union; it was a founding member of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon) in 1949 and of the Warsaw Pact in 1955. In the early 1960s, the Czechoslovak economy became severely stagnated. The industrial growth rate was the lowest in Eastern Europe. As a result, in 1965 the party approved the New Economic Model, introducing free market elements into the economy.
On January 5, 1968, the Communist Party elected Alexander Dubček a Slovak reformer as first secretary of the KSČ (Slovak Communist Party). In April, Dubček launched an "Action Programme" of liberalisations that included increased freedom of the press, emphasis on consumer goods, and the possibility of a more democratic multi-party government. This became known as the Prague Spring. |
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The new Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev - who had replaced Khrushchev who had been deposed in 1964 - at first tried to limit the changes through negotiations and diplomatic pressure. Then after a final failed attempt to force change through the Bratislava Declaration in August 1968, n the night of August 20 - August 21, 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia.
The justification of this invasion would later become known as the Brezhnev Doctrine, a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed any threat to socialist rule in any state of the Soviet bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to them all, and therefore justified the intervention of fellow socialist states. |
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During the Warsaw Pact invasion, Soviet tanks ranging in numbers from 5,000 to 7,000 occupied the streets. They were followed by a large number of Warsaw Pact troops ranging from 200,000 to 600,000. During the attack of the Warsaw Pact armies, 72 Czechs and Slovaks were killed (19 of those in Slovakia) and hundreds were wounded (up to September 3, 1968). Unlike in Hungary in 1956, Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist. He was arrested and taken to Moscow, along with several of his colleagues.
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Consequences
The invasion was followed by a wave of emigration, 300,000 typically highly qualified people were to leave Czechoslovakia. It was agreed that Dubček would remain in office and that a program of moderate reform would continue. On January 19, 1969, student Jan Palach set himself on fire in Prague's Wenceslas Square to protest the renewed suppression of free speech. Finally, in April 1969, Dubček was replaced as First Secretary by Gustáv Husák. As with the Americans in Vietnam, the Prague Spring was a blow to the confidence of the USSR. As a result, both superpowers sought to improve their relations, the consequence was detente. |
Activity 3
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Watch the Cold War episode on the Prague Spring.
a) Explain why there was support for economic and political reform in Czechoslovakia and why this presented problems for the USSR. b) What were the consequences of the Prague Spring for both Czechoslovakia and the Cold War. |
Lesson 7 - Détente
25-05-2020
25-05-2020
Détente is a French term, meaning a relaxing or easing; the term has been used in international politics since the early 1970s. Generally, it may be applied to any international situation where previously hostile nations not involved in an open war "warm up" to each other and threats de-escalate. However, it is primarily used in reference to the general reduction in the tension between the Soviet Union and the United States and a thawing of the Cold War, occurring from the mid 1960s until the start of the 1980s.
Causes
Both sides had pressing reasons to seek relaxation in tensions. The Cuban Missile crisis might be considered a trigger. Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) focused the strategist’s minds. In addition, political events in the late 1960s (Czechoslovakia and Vietnam) undermined the superpowers on the home front and with their relationships with allies. The superpowers lacked confidence.
Both sides had pressing reasons to seek relaxation in tensions. The Cuban Missile crisis might be considered a trigger. Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) focused the strategist’s minds. In addition, political events in the late 1960s (Czechoslovakia and Vietnam) undermined the superpowers on the home front and with their relationships with allies. The superpowers lacked confidence.
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USSR
Leonid Brezhnev and the rest of the Soviet leadership felt that the economic burden of the nuclear arms race was unsustainable. (20% going on defence) The Soviets also hoped that with Détente, more trade with Western Europe would be possible. They hoped for greater access to western technology. Worsening relations with the People's Republic of China, leading to the Sino-Soviet Split, had caused great concern in the Soviet Union. The leadership was terrified of the potential of a Sino-American alliance against them and thus felt improving relations with the United States would be necessary. Soviet thinkers also felt that a less aggressive policy could potentially detach the Western Europeans from their American ally. More independent minded policies appeared in Germany (Brandt) and France (de Gaulle). But on the other hand the Prague Spring (1968) had undermined the USSR’s relationship with the Eastern bloc |
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USA
The American economy was also in financial trouble as the Vietnam War drained government finances at the same time as Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society (and to a lesser extent, Richard Nixon) sought to expand the government welfare state. Vietnam also weakened the US psychologically. In Europe, Willy Brandt was decreasing tensions through Ostpolitik (see below). This was an effort to break with the policies of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), which was the elected government of West Germany from 1949 until 1969. The Christian Democrats under Konrad Adenauer and his successors tried to combat the Communist regime of East Germany, while Brandt's Social Democrats tried to achieve a certain degree of cooperation with East Germany. Improved relations with China (see below) also helped thaw the American view of communism in general.
1972
1972 is a key date in the history of Détente. Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger set up a series of ground breaking meetings that resulted in unprecedented visits by Nixon to both China and the USSR. Kissinger remains a controversial figure because of policies that promoted US interests at the expense of local democracy or human rights. (There is even a website dedicated to guessing the correct date of his death)
The American economy was also in financial trouble as the Vietnam War drained government finances at the same time as Lyndon Johnson’s Great Society (and to a lesser extent, Richard Nixon) sought to expand the government welfare state. Vietnam also weakened the US psychologically. In Europe, Willy Brandt was decreasing tensions through Ostpolitik (see below). This was an effort to break with the policies of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), which was the elected government of West Germany from 1949 until 1969. The Christian Democrats under Konrad Adenauer and his successors tried to combat the Communist regime of East Germany, while Brandt's Social Democrats tried to achieve a certain degree of cooperation with East Germany. Improved relations with China (see below) also helped thaw the American view of communism in general.
1972
1972 is a key date in the history of Détente. Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger set up a series of ground breaking meetings that resulted in unprecedented visits by Nixon to both China and the USSR. Kissinger remains a controversial figure because of policies that promoted US interests at the expense of local democracy or human rights. (There is even a website dedicated to guessing the correct date of his death)
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Detente - Achievements
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China – Nixon’s visit in 1972, pandas and ‘ping-pong- diplomacy’ were important but largely symbolic. The decision to allow Communist China to take their place at the UN Security Council was more significant.
Europe – Ostpolitik and the ‘basic treaty’ improved relations between East and West Germany with each side accepting the existence of the other. Arms Limitation - The Political Consultative Committee of the Warsaw Pact sent an offer to the West, urging to hold a summit on "security and cooperation in Europe". The West agreed and talks began towards actual limits in the nuclear capabilities of the two superpowers. SALT I in 1972 limited each power's nuclear arsenals, though it was quickly rendered out-of-date as a result of the development of MIRVs (multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicle). In the same year that SALT I was signed, the Biological Weapons Convention and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty were also concluded. International Agreement - In 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe met and produced the Helsinki Accords, a wide ranging series of agreements on economic, political, and human rights issues. Trade - Trade relations between the two blocks increased substantially during the era of detente. Most significant were the vast shipments of grain that were sent from the West to the Soviet Union each year, which helped make up for the failure of kolkhoz, Soviet collectivised agriculture. |
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Détente - Limitations
Despite the growing amicability of the two superpowers heated competition continued between the two, especially in the Third World and the wars of decolonisation. Wars in South Asia in 1971, Middle East in 1973 and Africa (See Decolonisation) saw the superpowers back their sides with materiel and diplomatic support. In Latin America the Soviet Union continued efforts to foment revolutions, while the United States continued to block any leftward shift in the region with CIA funded military coups, for example in Chile in 1973. (See optional films below)
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Neither side trusted the other fully and the potential for nuclear war remained. Each side continued to have thousands of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) pointed at the other’s cities, submarines in the oceans of the world, and forces guarding disputed borders in Korea and Europe. The espionage war continued unabated as defectors, reconnaissance satellites, and signal interceptions were still a priority for both sides.
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The end of Détente
Détente began to unravel in 1979 due to a series of events. The Iranian Revolution and the subsequent hostage crisis embarrassed the United States and led much of the American public to believe their nation had lost its international power and prestige. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan to shore up a struggling allied regime led to harsh criticisms in the West and a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics, which were to be held in Moscow. The 1980 American presidential election saw Ronald Reagan elected on a platform opposed to the concessions of Détente. Negotiations on SALT II were abandoned and the 'Second Cold War' had begun. |
Activity
1. Explain what Detente means then outline the main reasons why a) USA and b) USSR were keen on pursuing the policy.
2. What evidence is there that relations between the superpowers improved in the 1970s?
3. What evidence is there that superpower relations were largely unchanged in the 1970s? (See presentation above)
1. Explain what Detente means then outline the main reasons why a) USA and b) USSR were keen on pursuing the policy.
2. What evidence is there that relations between the superpowers improved in the 1970s?
3. What evidence is there that superpower relations were largely unchanged in the 1970s? (See presentation above)
Lesson 8 - The end of the Cold War - internal and external factors
26-05-2020
26-05-2020
The Cold War started and ended in Europe. The Cold War came to an end because the communist states of central and eastern Europe collapsed in the autumn of 1989. These same states had faced previous crises in 1956 (Poland and Hungary), 1968 (Czechoslovakia) and 1981 (Poland) but the system had survived previously because of what become known as the Brezhnev doctrine . In 1988 the leader of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev introduced a new doctrine which he jokingly called the Sinatra Doctrine. When confronted with independent political movements in central and eastern Europe he didn't send in the tanks, he said these countries could decide for themselves how to reform their socialist systems. They could do it 'their way'. So they did.
The communist states collapsed as a result of both external and internal factors. Internal factors were the problems faced by the communist states, including the USSR, within their own borders. Economic and political crises were common to all these states but dealt with in a variety of different ways with different consequences. The peaceful transfer of power of Poland and the Velvet Revolution of Czechoslovakia, were in stark contrast to the violent overthrow of Nicolae Ceaușescu in Romania or the genocide at Srebrenica which was a result of the post communist civil war in Yugoslavia. The external factors were the changing international relations of the Cold War that resulted from the rise to power of Gorbachev in 1985. Making a significant break with previous leaders, Gorbachev surprised the world and US President Reagan with a series of bold reforms which rewrote Soviet foreign policy.
External factors
a) The Second Cold War - Reagan's systematic challenge
In 1980 Ronald Reagan representing the New Right in the USA was elected president. Reagan decided to increase the strength of the US army and put the Soviets under pressure. In 1983 he introduced the idea of a new defence system, the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) or Star Wars. The Soviets were facing major problems. Solidarity in Poland (see below), war in Afghanistan and Reagan's challenge all led to the Second Cold War. In the USSR the economy was stagnating and the old leadership had no solutions to the problem. Between 1982 and 1985, three ageing Soviet leaders passed away: Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko.
a) The Second Cold War - Reagan's systematic challenge
In 1980 Ronald Reagan representing the New Right in the USA was elected president. Reagan decided to increase the strength of the US army and put the Soviets under pressure. In 1983 he introduced the idea of a new defence system, the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) or Star Wars. The Soviets were facing major problems. Solidarity in Poland (see below), war in Afghanistan and Reagan's challenge all led to the Second Cold War. In the USSR the economy was stagnating and the old leadership had no solutions to the problem. Between 1982 and 1985, three ageing Soviet leaders passed away: Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko.
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Even though the US economy suffered from a recession, the 1982 military budget was increased by 13%. It was decided that the USSR should be exposed to a ‘systematic challenge.’ New weapons should be developed which would be difficult to counter for the Soviets. New weapons would make Soviet weapons obsolete (out of date), which would put pressure on the Soviet economy. The Reagan administration started the largest peacetime military build-up in US history. Between 1981 and 1988 military spending went from $117 billion per year to $290 billion.
In 1983 Reagan announced his Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI) better known as the ‘Star Wars’ project. The aim was to develop a totally new and expensive technology, a shield protecting the USA in space. The same year Reagan gave a speech to the National Association of Evangelical Christians. The Soviet Union was described as an ‘evil empire’. (see film below) |
In November 1983 NATO started the deployment of the Pershings and the Cruise missiles. The USSR responded by pulling out from the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) talks and Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (START) negotiations. On November 2, 1983, as Soviet intelligence services were attempting to detect the signs of a nuclear strike, NATO began to simulate one. The exercise, codenamed Able Archer was believed by some of the Soviet leadership that the exercise might have been a cover for an actual attack. The elderly leadership in the Kremlin who still remembered Hitler’s surprise invasion in 1941 was determined not to get caught out again. The Soviet Union, believing its only chance of surviving a NATO strike was to pre-empt it, readied its nuclear arsenal.
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b) Gorbachev
Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary at the age of 54 after the death of Chernenko in March 1985. He was the youngest member of the politburo and the first Soviet leader to be born in the Soviet Union rather than in Tsarist Russia. He had been university educated and made his career in the post-Stalin era. It was a remarkable change of generation. Old hardliners and former Stalinists like Brezhnev, Andropov and Chernenko had now been replaced by an open-minded optimist and reformer. This drastic change of attitude can be best illuminated by how traditional Soviet political jokes developed. During the stagnation, the Brezhnev years, you could tell jokes about the leaders in private, but never in public:
‘Two men were standing in a queue, trying to buy some food — an inevitable part of daily life in the USSR. One of them said: what's wrong in our country? Why do we always have to queue for daily food? His friend said: It's our leaders' fault. They are responsible. His friend said: I’ll make them responsible. I shall go and shoot them!
After two hours he came back. What happened, his friend in the queue asked? Well, I gave up. The queue was longer there’
What is remarkable about this joke is that it was told by Gorbachev - on television. In 1986 he introduced his Perestroika or reconstructing policy, indicating that far reaching economic reforms were needed (see films below). Political parties and organisations were allowed. Censorship was abolished in 1988. Gorbachev's new openness was necessary for Perestroika.
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But it soon led to problems. When his reforms were accompanied by a severe economic crisis, the system collapsed. It became evident that republics within the Soviet Union and the satellites in Eastern Europe were not satisfied with only decentralised power and democracy without independence. In 1988 Gorbachev announced in the UN that every nation had the right to choose its own government i.e. a rejection of the Brezhnev doctrine. It didn't take long until both republics within the USSR, like the Baltic States, and the satellites in Eastern Europe demanded real independence. There were 15 republics and more than 120 ethnic groups within the USSR and freedom of speech released decades of bitterness over Stalin's repression and terror. Nationalist feelings led to Soviet control of Eastern Europe coming to an end in the autumn of 1989. It also led to a number of republics within the Soviet Union becoming independent states. In 1991, the hardliners tried to overthrow Gorbachev. It was last attempt by the old communists to retain power. They were defeated but so were Gorbachev's attempts to keep the USSR alive. On December 31 1991 the USSR was disbanded and Gorbachev as General Secretary of the USSR was out of a job.
Internal factors.
There were three distinctive internal factors: economic stagnation, new dissident led 'anti-political' movements and the popular mass movement.
a) Economic stagnation.
Brezhnev ignored the needs for reforms in the 1970s and 1980s. GNP growth had been around 10 % annually in the 1950s. It was 7 % in the 1960s and fell to 5% in the 1970s. In the early 1980s the growth was around 3 %. It was negative during the later Gorbachev era (-15 % in 1991). The planned economy worked well enough in a Fordist era when a backward agricultural economy needed modernisation, but it couldn’t compete with post-Fordism. When after the Oil Crisis of 1973 western capitalism began to shift to a more consumer driven, post-industrial economy that depended on technological innovation associated with microchips and the telecommunications revolution, the inflexible, command economy could not compete. A command economy cannot plan innovation anymore than an actor can improvise the words of Shakespeare. The Eastern Bloc did not and, more importantly, could not produce a Silicon Valley or entrepreneurs like Steve Jobs or Bill Gates. By the 1980s the technology used in the Eastern Bloc was rapidly becoming out of date. The USSR was slow to develop new technologies, such as personal computers, robotics and video equipment. In the mid-1980s there were 30 million personal computers in the US and only 50, 000 in the USSR. On the borders of East Germany and Czechoslovakia, West German television stations could be received with images of life under capitalism. Western music, cinema and fashion also had some influence on the people of eastern Europe. The mass consumer society of the West provided a sharp contrast with living standards in the East. Not only did western-style capitalism seem more attractive, but the failure of socialism to provide the living standards expected was evident to more and more of those citizens living in eastern Europe.
There were three distinctive internal factors: economic stagnation, new dissident led 'anti-political' movements and the popular mass movement.
a) Economic stagnation.
Brezhnev ignored the needs for reforms in the 1970s and 1980s. GNP growth had been around 10 % annually in the 1950s. It was 7 % in the 1960s and fell to 5% in the 1970s. In the early 1980s the growth was around 3 %. It was negative during the later Gorbachev era (-15 % in 1991). The planned economy worked well enough in a Fordist era when a backward agricultural economy needed modernisation, but it couldn’t compete with post-Fordism. When after the Oil Crisis of 1973 western capitalism began to shift to a more consumer driven, post-industrial economy that depended on technological innovation associated with microchips and the telecommunications revolution, the inflexible, command economy could not compete. A command economy cannot plan innovation anymore than an actor can improvise the words of Shakespeare. The Eastern Bloc did not and, more importantly, could not produce a Silicon Valley or entrepreneurs like Steve Jobs or Bill Gates. By the 1980s the technology used in the Eastern Bloc was rapidly becoming out of date. The USSR was slow to develop new technologies, such as personal computers, robotics and video equipment. In the mid-1980s there were 30 million personal computers in the US and only 50, 000 in the USSR. On the borders of East Germany and Czechoslovakia, West German television stations could be received with images of life under capitalism. Western music, cinema and fashion also had some influence on the people of eastern Europe. The mass consumer society of the West provided a sharp contrast with living standards in the East. Not only did western-style capitalism seem more attractive, but the failure of socialism to provide the living standards expected was evident to more and more of those citizens living in eastern Europe.
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b) The 'anti-political' movements
In the mid-1970s a new form of opposition group emerged at the same time as the Détente era Helsinki accords were stressing the importance of civil rights. The groups that emerged like The Workers’ Defence Committee (KOR) in Poland and Charter 77 in Czechoslovakia were groups of intellectuals who produced uncensored journals and newspapers. They deliberately did not politicise their organisations by being openly critical of the political system or by calling for communism to be replaced. Instead they focused on protecting human rights, civil disobedience and passive resistance. They often used humour and highlighted the ridiculous nature of communist propaganda, but they did not directly confront the state.
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The Underground Society and Anti-Politics
‘Instead of organising ourselves as an underground state, we should be organising ourselves as an underground society… Such a movement should strive for a situation in which the government will control empty shops but not the market, employment but not the means to livelihood, the state press but not the flow of information, printing houses but not the publishing movement, telephones and the postal service but not communication, schools but not education’. (Wiktor Kulerski)
The most significant anti-political movement to emerge in central and eastern Europe was the polish Solidarity trade union. Solidarity gave local groups a national focus; capable of providing a challenge to the state but self-consciously limiting the extent of that challenge.
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This was the same anti-political message promoted by Charter 77. Solidarity eschewed not only violence but also antagonistic, overtly political methods. Their leader Lech Wałęsa even issued six ‘commandments’, including the injunction ‘to keep peace and order’. In other words, Solidarity did not challenge the state, rather it wanted in the words of Andrzej Gwiazda ‘a moral revolution’ not a political one. This meant not choosing between revolution and compromise but rather undermining the state by ignoring it. This did not require an organised, centralised opposition but rather localised, personal resistance. When the time was right in the late 1980s it would be leaders of the anti-political movement who replace the communists and ensure a peaceful transition of power. |
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c) Popular mass movement.
By the 1970s, citizens of central and eastern Europe had become accustomed to economic growth, health and welfare provision that when threatened produced serious political grievances. The communist regimes could only dig themselves out of trouble by short term economic measures such as unsustainable wage increases which hastened them into long-term structural crisis. This was the vicious circle which characterised the periodic economic crisis and political reform in Poland. The regimes also produced higher expectations from its citizenship and the high quality, universal education system, provided the citizenship with the means of articulating it. Communism, to borrow a phrase from Marx, had created its own grave diggers. This was a citizenship that in 1980s was aware of the superiority of western consumer goods and the corrupt inefficiencies of the Soviet system. |
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But as we saw in Lenin's remark in 1917, revolutions need revolutionaries, people who are willing to die for a better world to be born. Many of the historical narratives of 1989 ignore the risks taken by those who protested on the streets. It is worth remembering that in the summer of 1989 the Chinese Communist Party crushed the pro-democracy movement with tanks. Those who took to the streets in Leipzig and Prague, Warsaw and Budapest did not know, as we now do, that Gorbachev would both keep his word and stay in power. (see video below)
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Activity
You have only one thing to do on this topic but make it a good one. Following the internal/external structure provided above and selecting evidence from the films, Prezis and timeline to support your answer, plan a seven minute oral exam presentation that answers the key question 'why did the Cold War come to an end?'.
You have only one thing to do on this topic but make it a good one. Following the internal/external structure provided above and selecting evidence from the films, Prezis and timeline to support your answer, plan a seven minute oral exam presentation that answers the key question 'why did the Cold War come to an end?'.