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This first semester of history is Janus faced, we look to past but also to the future. With the new Matu timetable here at Ecole Moser, we begin teaching the content of the Maturité Fédérale Suisse in semester 2 of Year 11 (11e). In this first semester we need to complete the chronological overview of history you began in Year 9 (9e). But this is also an opportunity to introduce students to the other main innovation at Ecole Moser from September 2021, the planned introduction of the Double Diploma. Studying history in the International Baccalaureate presents some interesting new challenges. We are going to preview some of them here.
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Lesson 1 - What is history?
This first lesson is a short introduction to the philosophy of history. These first six questions are a starting point. Below is a Prezi made in Abobe Flash... it is not visible on your iPads. Sorry
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What is history? - History is the process of researching about the past and production of text (books etc.) written about the past. History is written by professional historians; people who are usually employed by universities to research and write about the past. Historians train for many years (6-10 years), usually completing a doctorate before going on to publish articles and books. Although historians often teach, school history teachers are usually not historians.
What is the difference between ‘the past’ and ‘history?’ - The past is everything that has ever happened to everyone and any time before now. By the time you read the end of this sentence, the first words are already in the past. In contrast, history is a text written in the present about selected bits of the past. Historians write about things in the past that they consider to be important (significance); they try to explain why things happened (causes) and with what results (consequences). Needless to say, most of the past is unknowable because we have no record of it at all.
How do historians do history? - Historians cannot travel in time. Therefore, historians research and write about the past using evidence that the past has left behind. These sources of information are sometimes called primary sources. Historians also use the work of other people who have written about the past. These are called secondary sources and are produced after the time of the events being studied.
What are the sources of history? - There are three general sources of historical information: what is written (texts), what is said (oral), and what is physically preserved (artefacts). Archaeology is a subject that is particularly useful in helping to recover and interpret artefacts. Archaeology is very important when little or no record of written sources exist. Events of the past prior to written record are considered to be prehistoric.
What is the point of history? - Without historians, we would not know about the past, we would only have myths and stories about the past. Imagine you woke up tomorrow knowing nothing about your life before that moment, how would you cope? Just as your memory is essential to knowing who you are, so history is essential for knowing who we are.
Why is learning history dangerous and controversial?
What is the difference between ‘the past’ and ‘history?’ - The past is everything that has ever happened to everyone and any time before now. By the time you read the end of this sentence, the first words are already in the past. In contrast, history is a text written in the present about selected bits of the past. Historians write about things in the past that they consider to be important (significance); they try to explain why things happened (causes) and with what results (consequences). Needless to say, most of the past is unknowable because we have no record of it at all.
How do historians do history? - Historians cannot travel in time. Therefore, historians research and write about the past using evidence that the past has left behind. These sources of information are sometimes called primary sources. Historians also use the work of other people who have written about the past. These are called secondary sources and are produced after the time of the events being studied.
What are the sources of history? - There are three general sources of historical information: what is written (texts), what is said (oral), and what is physically preserved (artefacts). Archaeology is a subject that is particularly useful in helping to recover and interpret artefacts. Archaeology is very important when little or no record of written sources exist. Events of the past prior to written record are considered to be prehistoric.
What is the point of history? - Without historians, we would not know about the past, we would only have myths and stories about the past. Imagine you woke up tomorrow knowing nothing about your life before that moment, how would you cope? Just as your memory is essential to knowing who you are, so history is essential for knowing who we are.
Why is learning history dangerous and controversial?
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Watch the two short films above. 'Politicians abusing history' looks at how politicians use the past in order to justify their current policies. For example, British PM Blair justified going to war in Iraq in 2003 by comparing Saddam Hussein to Adolf Hitler. In China students are not taught about the democracy protests that were crushed by the Communist government in 1989.
The second film deals with history teaching. In most countries in the world, what and how history is studied in school is strictly controlled by the government. Textbooks must be approved and exam boards control what is taught. Governments are often keen for us to be proud of our ‘nation’s past’, so want us to learn a particular version of our ‘nation’s story.’ Historians are a problem, because they encourage us to question such simple stories. In addition, unlike the other social sciences which try to explain how the world is, history is always showing how the world can change.
The second film deals with history teaching. In most countries in the world, what and how history is studied in school is strictly controlled by the government. Textbooks must be approved and exam boards control what is taught. Governments are often keen for us to be proud of our ‘nation’s past’, so want us to learn a particular version of our ‘nation’s story.’ Historians are a problem, because they encourage us to question such simple stories. In addition, unlike the other social sciences which try to explain how the world is, history is always showing how the world can change.
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Activities
Questions to check your understanding:
Want to think some more? Click on the good-looking chap on the right. |
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Lesson 2 - War, chronology and movies.
This lesson combines two of my favourite things, history and cinema. Since the very early days of cinema, film makers have been inspired by 'true' historical events to tell their stories. Look at this list of the 92 films to have won Best Picture at the Oscars. If you have time, count how many films in this list were set in the past, or had a historical theme. Of those, how many were set during a time of war or had war as the main focus? Why do think war has been such a popular theme in movies?
Here are 12 films I have chosen to introduce our course. They are set in different time periods and were made at various points over the last 60 years. There are Oscar winners amongst them and the same actor appears in two of the films. Many of the scenes are very famous and iconic moments in the history of cinema. Hopefully you will recognise some of them. Perhaps you will even be able to identify the conflicts and wars they tell stories about?
Here are 12 films I have chosen to introduce our course. They are set in different time periods and were made at various points over the last 60 years. There are Oscar winners amongst them and the same actor appears in two of the films. Many of the scenes are very famous and iconic moments in the history of cinema. Hopefully you will recognise some of them. Perhaps you will even be able to identify the conflicts and wars they tell stories about?
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Activity Once you have watched the film '12 War themed movies' there will be some class based activities. You will then be invited to complete a series of activities by clicking on the following link. |
Lesson 3 - 1066 and all that
Big Questions
This is our first normal lesson. Having spent some time looking at different wars across time, now we're going dip into a series of case studies of particular conflicts at particular times. If you thought seriously about why war is such an attractive theme for film makers, you will hopefully begin to understand why studying war through time provides such a useful window on the past. Here are some of my initial thoughts.
This is our first normal lesson. Having spent some time looking at different wars across time, now we're going dip into a series of case studies of particular conflicts at particular times. If you thought seriously about why war is such an attractive theme for film makers, you will hopefully begin to understand why studying war through time provides such a useful window on the past. Here are some of my initial thoughts.
- Wars are exceptional events that challenge humans in extreme ways. We can learn a lot about humanity by studying how they fight wars (and make peace).
- Because they are exceptional events, wars tend to be well documented (lots of sources) and deliberately remembered. Our entry point to each war we study will be a memorialisation or commemoration of the event that still exists today. For example, for this first topic we'll be taking a close look at the Bayeux Tapestry which covers the events of 1066.
- Because they are extreme situations, wars tend to exaggerate and distort normal peacetime phenomena. For example, all governments use propaganda to control what their citizens think, it's just easier to see it in wartime.
- Although the causes of war can be quite similar over time, the ways wars are fought do change. How a society fights a war, will us a lot about the nature of that society. For example, how did European countries use their colonial soldiers in the First World War? or How did the French Revolution change the nature of Napoleon's army?
- Wars tend to be unusually important 'turning points' in human history. Wars can be such extreme events with such wide ranging consequences that the world is never quite the same afterwards. Unlike most other dates in history, no historian is going to argue that the consequences 1914 or 1939 were not important turning points.
- The way the world is today, is largely a consequence of the wars of the last century and the history of those wars - and all wars - is written by the victors. How wars are remembered and commemorated is important. As Orwell wrote in 1984, "Who controls the past controls the future: who controls the present controls the past."
Heritage Object 1 - The Bayeux Tapestry
This is our entry point into medieval warfare and as a commemoration of warfare there is nothing more famous. The Battle of Hastings of 1066 that it commemorates is one of the most significant in European history. It marked the last successful invasion of Britain, saw the introduction of Norman feudalism in the British isles and closely tied English and French history for the next few hundred years. The event even helps explain the richness of the English language and its curious mixture of Germanic Anglo-Saxon (70% words and grammar structure) and largely Norman-French for the rest. The Bayeux Tapestry has been part of UNESCO's 'Memory of the World' register since 2007.
This lesson begins with an investigation and close examination of the Bayeux Tapestry itself and then moves on to look at the impact of the Norman invasion more generally.
Background
At the start of 1066 England was a country ruled by Anglo-Saxons, the northern Germanic tribes that had descended over Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. When their King Edward the Confessor died in January 1066 he left no heir and the line of succession was not clear. The most powerful English lord, Harold Godwinson took the crown but was challenged by Vikings in the north and the French descendants of Vikings (Normans - 'Norsemen') from the south. The claim to the English throne by the leader of the Normans, William the Bastard, will be the focus of this lesson because it is central to the Bayeux Tapestry. This is the important scene.
This lesson begins with an investigation and close examination of the Bayeux Tapestry itself and then moves on to look at the impact of the Norman invasion more generally.
Background
At the start of 1066 England was a country ruled by Anglo-Saxons, the northern Germanic tribes that had descended over Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. When their King Edward the Confessor died in January 1066 he left no heir and the line of succession was not clear. The most powerful English lord, Harold Godwinson took the crown but was challenged by Vikings in the north and the French descendants of Vikings (Normans - 'Norsemen') from the south. The claim to the English throne by the leader of the Normans, William the Bastard, will be the focus of this lesson because it is central to the Bayeux Tapestry. This is the important scene.
This is 1064, two years before the death of Edward the Confessor. On the left with the sword is William of Normandy, on the right with the moustache is Harold Godwinson. The text above says 'UBI HAROLD SACRAMENTUM FECIT WILLELMO DUCI', which as you know means 'Where Harold made an oath to Duke William'. An 'oath' is a promise. In this scene, Harold is shown swearing an oath to help William of Normandy to become king of England. The key question of the lesson is did this really happen? Go to the activity page.
The consequences
There may be some historical doubt about whether William had a genuine right to the English crown, but the outcome of the Battle of Hastings and its significance is unquestioned.
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Not only was the English Saxon king killed, but so also were a significant portion on the English ruling elite. How was England now to be governed? In the following years, William and the Normans used a mixture of coercion (e.g. castle building and burning down the towns of rebels), propaganda (e.g. Bayeux Tapestry and church building) and social engineering to impose their rule on Saxon England. In this part of the lesson we are going to focus on the 'social engineering', better known as the feudal system.
As Professor Robert Bartlett describes in the film opposite, the Normans may have arrived on their Viking ancestors long boats but their innovative use of horse riding, fighting knights pointed the way to the future. |
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The Feudal System.
A medieval king like William in reality had considerably less power than a modern dictator. In the absence of modern communications - road, rail and telecommunications - a king depended on loyal, local military leaders to do the governing for him. After the Battle of Hastings, William was able to govern a hostile foreign land by rewarding the knights who had fought alongside him, with land in England that they would govern on his behalf. This is known as the feudal system.
A medieval king like William in reality had considerably less power than a modern dictator. In the absence of modern communications - road, rail and telecommunications - a king depended on loyal, local military leaders to do the governing for him. After the Battle of Hastings, William was able to govern a hostile foreign land by rewarding the knights who had fought alongside him, with land in England that they would govern on his behalf. This is known as the feudal system.
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At the top of the feudal system was the king. Chosen by God, the king had a ‘divine right’ to rule. The king gave his lands and manors (or fiefs – which is perhaps where the word feudal comes from) to important lords or tenants–in-chief. In return for the fiefs, the lords or nobles became the king’s vassals and swore an oath of loyalty (fealty) and paid homage to him.
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Homage consisted of the vassal surrendering himself to the lord, symbolised by his kneeling and giving his joined hands to the lord, who clasped them in his own, thus accepting the surrender. When Harold made his oath to William he was also paying homage.
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We can still see the long-term consequences of William's feudal system in the English language we speak today. Most peasants were largely vegetarian, eating barley, oats and rye. (See film left) Meat was eaten when available, but certain types of meat were very much the preserve of the upper classes. This is reflected today in the difference between the name given to the animal (Saxon) and the name given to the meat (Norman French).
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The Knights
In return for fiefs (land), the vassals made promises, the most important of which was to serve the lord as a soldier for 40-60 days a year. It was the knights as lords of the manor or demesne who really controlled medieval Europe. The land they had been granted was theirs to pass on through inheritance to their eldest son. This guaranteed that authority was passed on from generation to generation and that a class of rulers emerged who owed their important social role to tradition. It also helped that the church encouraged the belief that the inequality of the feudal system was divinely ordained, that people were born into a 'station' in life chosen by God.
In return for fiefs (land), the vassals made promises, the most important of which was to serve the lord as a soldier for 40-60 days a year. It was the knights as lords of the manor or demesne who really controlled medieval Europe. The land they had been granted was theirs to pass on through inheritance to their eldest son. This guaranteed that authority was passed on from generation to generation and that a class of rulers emerged who owed their important social role to tradition. It also helped that the church encouraged the belief that the inequality of the feudal system was divinely ordained, that people were born into a 'station' in life chosen by God.
Training to be a knight.
When a boy was eight years old he was trained as a page. The boy was usually the son of a knight or of a member of the aristocracy. He spent most of his time strengthening his body, wrestling and riding horses. He also learned how to fight with a spear and a sword. He practiced against a wooden dummy called a quintain. At the age of fifteen or sixteen, a boy became a squire in service to a knight. His duties included dressing the knight in the morning, caring for the knight’s horse, and cleaning the knight’s armour and weapons.
When a boy was eight years old he was trained as a page. The boy was usually the son of a knight or of a member of the aristocracy. He spent most of his time strengthening his body, wrestling and riding horses. He also learned how to fight with a spear and a sword. He practiced against a wooden dummy called a quintain. At the age of fifteen or sixteen, a boy became a squire in service to a knight. His duties included dressing the knight in the morning, caring for the knight’s horse, and cleaning the knight’s armour and weapons.
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He followed the knight to tournaments and assisted his lord on the battlefield. A squire also prepared himself by learning how to handle a sword and lance while wearing 20 kg of armour and riding a horse. When he was about twenty, a squire could become a knight after proving himself worthy. A lord would agree to knight him in a dubbing ceremony. A young man could also become a knight for valour in combat after a battle or sometimes before a battle to help him gain courage. Tournaments were an essential part of military and social life. These "war games" consisted of individual contests (jousts), and group combat. One of the most successful knights of the middle ages was William Marshall (see film) |
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The problem of knights
Knights believed in the code of chivalry. They promised to defend the weak, be courteous to all women, be loyal to their king, and serve God at all times. Knights were expected to be humble before others, especially their superiors. However, the very fact that knights were trained as men of war meant that the code was not regularly followed. Even though they came from rich families, many knights were not their families' firstborn. They did not receive an inheritance. Thus they were little more than mercenaries. They plundered villages or cities that they captured. As we will see in the next lesson, when the Pope launched the First Crusade 1095, part of his reasoning was to get rid of the warring knights from Europe. |
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Activity
Every history student should draw a diagram of the feudal system at some point in their history education. I remember drawing a very boring pyramid style, feudal system diagram when I was in school. You can draw a boring one if you want, or you can design something that interprets the concept of hierarchy much more imaginatively. Either way you need to be able to explain how feudalism worked, because I might ask you to do that in examination. Add your completed diagram and explanation to your OneNote. My old website has a collection of rather more interesting creations made by my students. Below are some of my favourites.
Every history student should draw a diagram of the feudal system at some point in their history education. I remember drawing a very boring pyramid style, feudal system diagram when I was in school. You can draw a boring one if you want, or you can design something that interprets the concept of hierarchy much more imaginatively. Either way you need to be able to explain how feudalism worked, because I might ask you to do that in examination. Add your completed diagram and explanation to your OneNote. My old website has a collection of rather more interesting creations made by my students. Below are some of my favourites.
Finally, add the Battle of Hastings (1066) to your timeline. Write between 50 and 100 words and try to upload a picture of the Bayeux Tapestry to go with it.
Lesson 4 - 1271: The fall of Krak des Chevaliers castle.
Big questions and some initial answers
At the start of the last lesson you will have seen some big questions that we have already begun to address. We know that land ownership in the Middle Ages was both a source of power (feudalism) and a cause of war. We have learnt that armies were relatively small in 1066. William's invasion force was somewhere between 7000 -10,000 men. When allied forces crossed the channel for D-Day in 1944 they had around 150,000 soldiers. Why do you think armies were relatively small? We have learnt that soldiers only had to fight for a certain number of days in the year and that new techniques or technology can be important to the outcome of war. For example, William's use of mounted knights were critically important to the outcome of the battle in 1066. We have seen that wars can be important turning points in history that can have a significant long-term impact of peoples' lives (e.g. English language). Finally, we have understood that God was very important to medieval people. William's conquest of England was justified because Harold broke a holy promise and the church played an important role in encouraging people to believe that William has the right to rule England. In our second case study we are going to see how religion - not for the last time - can be an important cause of war.
At the start of the last lesson you will have seen some big questions that we have already begun to address. We know that land ownership in the Middle Ages was both a source of power (feudalism) and a cause of war. We have learnt that armies were relatively small in 1066. William's invasion force was somewhere between 7000 -10,000 men. When allied forces crossed the channel for D-Day in 1944 they had around 150,000 soldiers. Why do you think armies were relatively small? We have learnt that soldiers only had to fight for a certain number of days in the year and that new techniques or technology can be important to the outcome of war. For example, William's use of mounted knights were critically important to the outcome of the battle in 1066. We have seen that wars can be important turning points in history that can have a significant long-term impact of peoples' lives (e.g. English language). Finally, we have understood that God was very important to medieval people. William's conquest of England was justified because Harold broke a holy promise and the church played an important role in encouraging people to believe that William has the right to rule England. In our second case study we are going to see how religion - not for the last time - can be an important cause of war.
Heritage Object 2 - Krak des Chevaliers castle, Syria
Built in the 12th century, Krak des Chevaliers is one of the most famous castles in the world that became a model for castle building throughout Europe. In 1142 it was given to the order of the Knights Hospitaller as a base to protect Christian interest in the Holy Land. It remained in their possession until it fell in 1271. In 2006, the castle was recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. It was partially damaged in the Syrian civil war from shelling and recaptured by the Syrian government forces in 2014.
We'll begin through two very different introductions. The film of the left in French is an extraordinary use of high definition graphics to produce an 8k virtual tour of the castle. Do not try to watch it in school, you'll crash the wi-fi. The film of the right was produced by the AFP News Agency in 2012 and it shows how the castle became the centre of the ongoing civil war in Syria. It provides a very interesting insight into how war continues to be fought in the 21st century. What can you learn from the film?
We'll begin through two very different introductions. The film of the left in French is an extraordinary use of high definition graphics to produce an 8k virtual tour of the castle. Do not try to watch it in school, you'll crash the wi-fi. The film of the right was produced by the AFP News Agency in 2012 and it shows how the castle became the centre of the ongoing civil war in Syria. It provides a very interesting insight into how war continues to be fought in the 21st century. What can you learn from the film?
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The Crusades
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The most important place on earth for Christians was Jerusalem in Palestine. Jesus had died in Jerusalem. Christians wanted to go there on pilgrimage. They wanted to see holy relics like the crown of thorns worn by Jesus and the nails from the holy cross. (See the map of the world below from 1265 and click to enlarge and/or watch Professor Bartlett's short film about Mappa mundi). But Palestine was not part of Christendom (see map below). Even though Christians called Palestine their Holy Land they did not control it. The Holy Land was ruled by Muslims and Jerusalem was a holy city for Muslims as well. For hundreds of years they let Christians go on pilgrimages to Jerusalem and all was well.
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In 1071 a different group of Muslims took over Palestine. These Ottoman Turks captured the Holy Land, stopped pilgrimages and threatened the Eastern Orthodox Christian (Byzantine) church led from Constantinople . The Pope promised to help the Eastern Orthodox church. In 1095 he preached a sermon which called on all Christians to win back the Holy Land from the Muslims or 'Saracens' as they were often called. This is what the Pope said:
‘Brothers, I speak as a messenger from God. Your fellow Christians in the east desperately need help. The Saracens have attacked them and have pushed deep into Christian land. They are killing great numbers of Christians. They are destroying churches and land. In the name of God, I beg you all to drive out these foul creatures.
Your own land has too many people. There is not much wealth here. The soil hardly grows enough to support you. Set out for Jerusalem. Take that land from the wicked infidel and make it your own.
If you die on the journey or if you are killed in a battle against these Saracens all your sins will be forgiven at once. God Himself has given me the power to tell you this. Some of you have spent too much time fighting against your fellow Christians. But now you must fight the Saracens. Let bandits become soldiers. Soldiers who have been fighting for money must now fight for heavenly riches.’
Pope Urban II - 1095
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The consequences of this speech were amongst the most significant in history, with enormous long-term consequences for the relationship between Christian and Muslim. The short film extract (left) from Professor Bartlett provides a useful overview.
In the short-term, Pope Urban II's speech was a simple declaration of war, a war motivated by religion, a 'crusade'. As we will see in the Crusades and throughout history, war that has a religious dimension is even more brutal than usual. Go to the activity for Case study 2. |
Finally, add 1271: The fall of Krak des Chevaliers castle to your timeline. Write between 50 and 100 words and try to upload a picture of the castle to go with it.