Lesson 3 - The Scramble for Africa - The Belgian Congo, German South West Africa and Swiss 'human zoos'.
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Case study 1 - The Congo Free State
One of the most significant consequences of the 1885 Berlin conference was the decision allow for the creation of the Congo Free State, a personal fiefdom of the Belgian king Leopold II. A decade earlier, Leopold had hosted an international geographic conference to promote a 'humanitarian' exploration of the Congo basin in order to support anti-slavery and to encourage the 'civilisation of the region'. Leopold had long since decided that his personal reputation and status of Belgium depended upon acquiring significant colonies somewhere in the world. In 1879, Leopold employed Henry Morton Stanley ('Dr. Livingstone I presume') to explore and claim the region of the Congo for the Belgian crown. In the meantime, Leopold set about secretly negotiating with the great powers of Europe and the USA, lobbying for their support through a mixture of financial incentives and empty philanthropic promises for a programme of African 'civilisation'. |
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The Berlin conference of 1884-5 was to be a triumph for Leopold's colonial ambitions and his diplomacy. What happened next is the subject of a brilliant piece of 'journalistic' history writing by Adam Hochschild, 'King Leopold's Ghost'.
Leopold's reign provided him with a vast personal fortune derived from rubber, ivory and minerals, which he used to build palaces and grand monuments in Brussels and other Belgian towns. Until fairly recently, his reputation amongst Belgians was still relatively positive, he is known as the 'builder king'. Until recently, when I first taught in Brussels in 2009, the city's African Museum was still largely a celebration of Belgium's colonial past. (see this NY Times article). Adam Hochschild's book has done much to upset that, the following short film extract is a useful summary of some of his main conclusions. And perhaps most importantly as we have already seen, the events of 2020 have changed things forever.
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Activity 1 - Watch the film extract but be prepared for some shocking scenes. How did Leopold persuade the great powers to give him control over the Congo? Explain why the population for Congo was halved from 20 million to about 10 million in the period 1880 to 1920. What were human zoos and why was Leopold forced to give up his control over the Congo? |
In the early 20th century, Leopold's mis-governance of the Congo was subject to one of the first successful international human rights campaigns. Believing in the king's humanitarian goals, many Christian missionaries were attracted to the 'mission' of the Congo. It was these missionaries who first raised the alarm about the atrocities being committed.
In 1890, the black American activist George Washington Williams wrote an open letter to Leopold condemning his rule, but it took the work of the Anglo-French journalist E. D. Morel to launch a campaign. In the late 1890s, Morel had investigated the imports and exports in to the Congo and had concluded that Leopold's Congo was a mere front for economic exploitation and slave labour. In 1903, the British government commissioned the civil servant Roger Casement to investigate the accusations, which he was able to confirm.
In 1890, the black American activist George Washington Williams wrote an open letter to Leopold condemning his rule, but it took the work of the Anglo-French journalist E. D. Morel to launch a campaign. In the late 1890s, Morel had investigated the imports and exports in to the Congo and had concluded that Leopold's Congo was a mere front for economic exploitation and slave labour. In 1903, the British government commissioned the civil servant Roger Casement to investigate the accusations, which he was able to confirm.
The Congo Reform Association.
Together in 1904 Morel and Casement established Congo Reform Association (CRA). The group carried out the first modern global publicity campaign that highlighted the abuses of Leopold's regime and called for international intervention. A number of famous writers helped in the campaign including Joseph Conrad (Heart of Darkness) and Mark Twain (Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn) who were in turn able to make use of the photographs of the English missionary Alice Seeley Harris (1870-1970).
Together in 1904 Morel and Casement established Congo Reform Association (CRA). The group carried out the first modern global publicity campaign that highlighted the abuses of Leopold's regime and called for international intervention. A number of famous writers helped in the campaign including Joseph Conrad (Heart of Darkness) and Mark Twain (Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn) who were in turn able to make use of the photographs of the English missionary Alice Seeley Harris (1870-1970).
E. D. Morel
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Roger Casement
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Mark Twain
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Joseph Conrad
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Alice Seeley Harris
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This infamous photograph taken by Seeley Harris shows the severing of hands. In 1904, two native men arrived at her mission explaining that their village had been attacked by the Belgian rubber company for failing to produce enough rubber. One of the men, Nsala, showed her the severed hand and foot of a child. Sentries had killed and mutilated his wife and daughter. Seeley Harris persuaded Nsala to pose with his child's remains on the veranda of her home for a picture. She was to take many more pictures of the mutilations.
By 1908, public and diplomatic pressure led to Leopold II being forced to give up control of the Congo to the Belgian state. He received significant financial compensation, was never put on trial and died the next year.
Activity 2 - A source analysis activity completed in pairs or groups.
Source A - International Bulletin of Missionary Research published in 2002
Monthly quotas were set for each village. Failure to meet these quotas would lead to sanctions of varying severity. First there was beating with the chikoti, a painful whip made of hippopotamus hide; then women were held hostage and sometimes raped to ensure that their husbands harvested rubber.. Since European company officials seldom ventured far beyond the main towns, a grotesque culture grew up for ensuring both that the requisite punishments had been carried out and that the forest guards had used their bullets "officially" on humans, rather than for shooting game for their own pots*. To be certain about the use of bullets, the guards were instructed to cut off the right hand of each person they killed and return it to the European officials, who would tally the hands against the number of bullets used….In fact, as many of Alice Harris's photographs later showed, clever forest guards would simply cut off the hands from living people and save their cartridges for other purposes.
Monthly quotas were set for each village. Failure to meet these quotas would lead to sanctions of varying severity. First there was beating with the chikoti, a painful whip made of hippopotamus hide; then women were held hostage and sometimes raped to ensure that their husbands harvested rubber.. Since European company officials seldom ventured far beyond the main towns, a grotesque culture grew up for ensuring both that the requisite punishments had been carried out and that the forest guards had used their bullets "officially" on humans, rather than for shooting game for their own pots*. To be certain about the use of bullets, the guards were instructed to cut off the right hand of each person they killed and return it to the European officials, who would tally the hands against the number of bullets used….In fact, as many of Alice Harris's photographs later showed, clever forest guards would simply cut off the hands from living people and save their cartridges for other purposes.
1. According to Source A why did the Belgian 'forest guards' cut off the hands of living people? Hint to 'save their cartridges for other purposes.' is not a full explanation.
*Game refers to wild animals that are hunted for food and put in cooking 'pots'.
*Game refers to wild animals that are hunted for food and put in cooking 'pots'.
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Source B - Cartoon published in the British journal Punch on 28 November 1906.
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2. Explain the meaning of the cartoon.
3. With reference to the origin, purpose and content of the Source B, consider the value and limitations of the cartoon as evidence about the Congo Free State from 1885-1906? 
On the utility of cartoons as historical sources see my website.
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Source C - Leopold II speech at the International Geographical Conference, Brussels September 12th 1876
“Gentlemen, among those who have the greatest knowledge of Africa... decide in common on the ways to follow and the means to employ to plant finally the standard of civilisation on the soil of Central Africa; to agree on the steps to take to interest the public in your noble enterprise... For, gentlemen, in works of this kind it is the support of the great majority that causes success; the sympathy of the masses must be solicited and obtained. Of what great resources, in fact, should we not dispose if all those to whom a franc is nothing or little consented to drop it into the cash-box intended to suppress the slave-trade in the interior of Africa? Great progress has already been made, the unknown has been attacked on many sides; and if those here present who have enriched science with such important discoveries will speak to us about the principal points, their exposition will be a powerful encouragement to us." |
Source D - Various private communications from Leopold II.
“I'm sure if I quite openly charged Stanley with the task of taking possession in my name of some part of Africa, the English will stop me. So I think I'll just give Stanley some job of exploration which would offend no one, and will give us the bases and headquarters which we can take over later on." Privately Léopold tells Stanley to "purchase as much land as you will be able to obtain, and ... place successively under ... suzerainty [control] ... as soon as possible and without losing one minute, all the chiefs from the mouth of the Congo to the Stanley Falls." Léopold also tells Stanley, "It is a question of creating a new state, as big as possible, and of running it. It is clearly understood that in this project there is no question of granting the slightest political power to the Negroes. That would be absurd." |
4. Compare and contrast Sources C and D as evidence about King Leopold's motivation. It is important that you find similarities as well as differences between the sources.
Case study 2 - German South West Africa.
This is even less well known than the atrocities committed in the Congo Free State.
German interest in south west Africa dated back to missionary settlements established in the 1840s. The German claims on this land were confirmed during the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and a private company was established to mine for mineral deposits, including diamonds gold, copper and platinum. In 1890 the colony was declared a German Crown Colony and troops were sent. German South West Africa was the only German colony in which Germans settled in large numbers. In 1902 the colony had 200,000 inhabitants, although only 2,595 were recorded as German, there were in addition smaller numbers of Afrikaans and British. There were probably around 80,000 Herero, 60,000 Ovambo, and 10,000 Nama, who were referred to as Hottentots.
German interest in south west Africa dated back to missionary settlements established in the 1840s. The German claims on this land were confirmed during the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and a private company was established to mine for mineral deposits, including diamonds gold, copper and platinum. In 1890 the colony was declared a German Crown Colony and troops were sent. German South West Africa was the only German colony in which Germans settled in large numbers. In 1902 the colony had 200,000 inhabitants, although only 2,595 were recorded as German, there were in addition smaller numbers of Afrikaans and British. There were probably around 80,000 Herero, 60,000 Ovambo, and 10,000 Nama, who were referred to as Hottentots.
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In January 1904, the Herero people who were led by Samuel Maharero and Nama who were led by Captain Hendrik Witbooi rebelled against German colonial rule. On January 12, they massacred more than 100 German men in the area of Okahandja. In August, German General Lothar von Trotha defeated the Ovaherero in the Battle of Waterberg and drove them into the desert of Omaheke, where most of them died of dehydration.
In October, the Nama people also rebelled against the Germans, only to suffer a similar fate. Between 24,000 and 100,000 Hereros, 10,000 Nama and an uncounted number of San died as a result of the genocide. |
The first phase of the genocide was characterized by widespread death from starvation and dehydration, due to the prevention of the Herero from leaving the Namib Desert by German forces. Once defeated, thousands of Hereros and Namas were imprisoned in concentration camps, where the majority died of diseases, abuse, and exhaustion.
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Conclusion
The Herero and Namaqua genocide has been recognised by the United Nations and by modern Germany. On the 100th anniversary of the camp's foundation, the German Minister Heidemarie Wieczorek-Zeul visited Namibia to commemorate the dead and to apologise for the camp on behalf of Germany. Recent article (May 2021) Germany agrees to pay Namibia €1.1bn over historical Herero-Nama genocide. In November 2023 the German President asked for forgiveness for his country's colonial rule in Tanzania. In contrast, (right) Belgian king refused to apologise for his country's colonial atrocities in Congo. (10 Jun 2022) |
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Activity 3
Read the text above and ideally also watch the (excellent) documentary which is a very powerful presentation about a little known event. Write a short set of revision notes that you would be able to use in an oral exam when asked to give an example of the negative consequences of imperialism in Africa. Think about the main causes, events and consequences of the German colonisation of South West Africa.
Read the text above and ideally also watch the (excellent) documentary which is a very powerful presentation about a little known event. Write a short set of revision notes that you would be able to use in an oral exam when asked to give an example of the negative consequences of imperialism in Africa. Think about the main causes, events and consequences of the German colonisation of South West Africa.
Case study 3 - Switzerland, popular imperialism and 'human zoos'.
In an earlier lesson we spoke about how imperialism was caused by public support for exploration and a racist belief in the superiority of European civilisation and social Darwinism. Even though Switzerland did not have an empire, it still participated in the popular enthusiasm for empire in several ways.
In an earlier lesson we spoke about how imperialism was caused by public support for exploration and a racist belief in the superiority of European civilisation and social Darwinism. Even though Switzerland did not have an empire, it still participated in the popular enthusiasm for empire in several ways.
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'Human zoos' were exhibitions popular in 19th and early 20th-century Europe, showcasing colonized people in staged environments. These displays, framed as educational, reinforced colonial hierarchies and racial stereotypes, dehumanizing participants. They combined pseudoscience, entertainment, and propaganda, influencing public perceptions of race and empire while profiting from exploitation. A Congolese village was displayed as late as 1958 at the Brussels World's Fair. In 1896, Geneva hosted the Village Noir, an exhibit of over 200 people from Senegal at the Second Swiss National Exhibition. Two million people visited the exhibit during its six-month run. The "Village Noir" was not a unique occurrence. From 1875 to 1939, over 100 presentations of humans took place in Switzerland.
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The 'Village Noir' featured the Senegalese people living in constructed dwellings, with their religious ceremonies advertised as public spectacles, and visitors were even allowed to take photos with them. This exhibit sparked diverse reactions. Some voices in the press, though not challenging the overall concept of human zoos, called for more respect and dignity for the exhibited people. Conversely, racist factions expressed fear of a 'Black invasion,' fueled by the Senegalese people's freedom to move around the city. This exhibition also played a part in promoting racist ideologies, as it included a lecture by Emile Yung, who compared the skin colour and skull size of the Senegalese people with those of a Genevan, attempting to establish a link between skull size and civilisation levels. (For more see this recent article by Letizia Gaja Pinoja published in 2023).
It is important to note that Switzerland was not entirely without involvement in new imperialism. Swiss individuals played a significant role in promoting and financing colonial ventures, particularly in Congo. King Leopold II of Belgium, unable to secure financing from banks in rival colonial capitals like Paris and London, found willing partners in Geneva's bankers. Swizerland was also a major influence in Britain's Gold Coast, modern day Ghana, helping to establish the cocoa industry. Key figures associated with Swiss humanitarianism, like the founders of the Red Cross, Henry Dunant and Gustave Moynier, also played roles in colonialism. Dunant worked for a private company that operated an agricultural settlers' colony in Algeria until 1956, and later established his own business in Algeria. Moynier, a member of the Geographical Society of Geneva, played a critical role in promoting colonialism through his publication "L'Afrique explorée et civilisée" (Africa explored and civilised). This publication, distributed globally, promoted Western civilisation and Christianity, and justified colonial violence through theories of racial superiority.
It is important to note that Switzerland was not entirely without involvement in new imperialism. Swiss individuals played a significant role in promoting and financing colonial ventures, particularly in Congo. King Leopold II of Belgium, unable to secure financing from banks in rival colonial capitals like Paris and London, found willing partners in Geneva's bankers. Swizerland was also a major influence in Britain's Gold Coast, modern day Ghana, helping to establish the cocoa industry. Key figures associated with Swiss humanitarianism, like the founders of the Red Cross, Henry Dunant and Gustave Moynier, also played roles in colonialism. Dunant worked for a private company that operated an agricultural settlers' colony in Algeria until 1956, and later established his own business in Algeria. Moynier, a member of the Geographical Society of Geneva, played a critical role in promoting colonialism through his publication "L'Afrique explorée et civilisée" (Africa explored and civilised). This publication, distributed globally, promoted Western civilisation and Christianity, and justified colonial violence through theories of racial superiority.
“Ethnographic exhibition” in Circus Knie in 1928.
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Swiss engagement in the popular enthusiasm for empire was not just a thing of the distant past. The national circus Knie continued to present "Völkerschauen" (people shows), featuring displays of Eskimos, Indians, "mysterious Egyptians" or people with albinism, until the 1960s (see poster right). This continued engagement with human exhibitions highlights the lack of a decolonisation process in Switzerland which has a complucated relationship with colonialism and empire, demonstrating that despite not having its own colonies, the nation was deeply entangled in the systems and ideologies that supported imperial expansion.
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Geneva in the Colonial World - Online Exhibition
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Face cachée - Episode du 18 juin 2023
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Activity 4
What evidence is there that Switzerland was involved in colonialism despite not having its own colonies?
What evidence is there that Switzerland was involved in colonialism despite not having its own colonies?
Extension and extra
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