Lesson 2 - Case studies - International School History

S3 - Matu 13 -Decolonisation and the Third World - Lesson 2

Lesson 2 - Three case studies in decolonisation: India (negotiated), Indo-China (violent) and the Congo (accelerated).

Before looking at the three case studies, it is worth watching this excellent overview from the People's Century series which broadens the examples and provides an overview in one 50 minute sweep.

(Password - moser)

The article that goes with it is also very good.

India (negotiated decolonisation)

Internal Factors = indirect rule explains nature of decolonisation.

British modernisation and the development of technology - the railways, the postal system - and the spread of the English language created greater unity in India than ever before. British-introduced institutions, such as the judiciary and legislative councils, became platforms for Indians to challenge colonial authority and demand greater autonomy.
Education: Britain encouraged Western-style education, which developed an educated middle class who became the leaders of India. Gandhi and Nehru were educated as lawyers in England. Newspapers like The Hindu and Kesari inspired mass movements against British rule. Religious and social reforms challenged traditional hierarchies and contributed to a more unified demand for self-rule. Movements like the Arya Samaj and Brahmo Samaj emphasized education and societal transformation, creating a literate and politically conscious populace.
Indian nationalism: The Indian National Congress (INC), formed in 1885, became a pivotal platform for voicing these demands. Gandhi’s movements, including the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) and Quit India Movement (1942), mobilized millions. Under the Government of India Act 1935, India had a national assembly and assemblies in the provinces under the control of the Governor-General. Civil disobedience movements eroded British control and demonstrated the power of non-violent resistance. Gandhi’s Salt March (1930) directly challenged British laws and demonstrated the capability of organized, peaceful resistance to undermine colonial authority.
The Labour Party and election of 1945: Labour supported a rapid move to Indian independence and was elected to government in 1945.

External factors = World War II.

Economic and Military Strain on Britain: World War II devastated Britain economically, leaving it unable to sustain its global empire. Military resources were stretched thin, and rebuilding the British economy became the primary focus after 1945. Britain owed £3.5 billion and was dependent on the US for loans, and the US was opposed to British control of India.
WWII strengthened Indian Nationalist Movements. The British decision to involve India in the war without consulting Indian leaders inflamed nationalist sentiments. The Quit India Movement (1942), launched by Gandhi, called for immediate British withdrawal and saw widespread participation. The advance of the Japanese through Burma forced the British to send Sir Stafford Cripps to India (March 1942) to discuss the process of independence with Indian leaders in order to guarantee Indian military support.
War against Nazism encouraged anti-colonial movements globally, including in India. The Atlantic Charter (1941), signed by Britain and the US, emphasized the right of all nations to self-determination.
International Pressure for Decolonisation: After the war, global powers, particularly the United States and the Soviet Union, opposed colonialism and pressured Britain to decolonize. The US, under Roosevelt, advocated for the end of European imperialism as part of its vision for a post-war world order.

Key events and immediate consequences

On 3 June 1947, in New Delhi, Lord Mountbatten and the main leaders of India negotiate the partition of that country in accordance with the British plan. From left to right: Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, Vice-President of the Interim Government; Lord Hastings Ismay, adviser to Lord Mountbatten; Lord Louis Mountbatten, Viceroy of India; and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, ‘Great Leader’ of the All-India Muslim League

Lord Mountbatten was given responsibility for negotiating the transfer of power. India was to be partitioned. It proposed that power would be handed over to two governments, one in India and one in Pakistan. They would have dominion status within the Commonwealth and would operate like that until they drew up their own constitutions. This plan meant that India would have to be partitioned between a majority Hindu country and a majority Muslim country. However, the distribution of the Muslim population presented problems. They were concentrated in the north-west and north-east of India and others were scattered throughout the country.

The new governments took over on 15 August 1947 and British forces began to withdraw. Nehru became Prime Minister of India, while Ali Khan became Prime Minister of Pakistan. The British withdrawal had avoided a civil war, but as Muslims, Hindus and Sikhs moved home. The partition caused one of the largest mass migrations in history, with an estimated 10–15 million people crossing borders to join India or Pakistan based on religious identity. Violence broke out, leading to communal riots, with estimates of 200,000 to 2 million deaths. India was the largest country to be decolonised and it became the largest democracy in the world. Relations between India and Pakistan were strained - they fought three wars over Kashmir. India was Britain's largest overseas possession. Once India got its independence, the reasons for holding onto the rest were weakened. Soon after, Ceylon, Burma and Malaya got their independence. India and Pakistan remained part of the British Commonwealth.

Indo-China (violent decolonisation)

The decolonisation of Indochina (modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) from French rule was influenced by a variety of internal factors, including nationalist movements, socioeconomic conditions, and the nature of French assimilation policies. The decolonisation of Indochina was the longest and most violent example of all. Although French decolonisation of Indo-China was complete by 1956, the logic of the Cold War saw the Americans remain in conflict with the North Vietnamese until 1973. And not until 1975 was a united Vietnam, finally realised.

Internal Factors = direct rule and assimilation explains nature of decolonisation.

Failure of assimilation: a key concept of French imperialism, known as 'assimilation', perceived colonies as one and indivisible from France. In the official mind, France had no colonies, only departments. French efforts to impose French language, education, and cultural norms often clashed with local traditions and identities, eroding traditional structures without offering full inclusion in French society, creating a sense of cultural and political alienation that fuelled nationalist sentiment. This created a 'them and us' culture which excluded the colonised from power and left little room for compromise and negotiation.
Economic exploitation: The colonial economy had been turned into one of plantation agriculture cash crops for export. As rice and rubber flowed out of the country, peasants found it increasingly impossible to support a growing population. The Indochinese were worked and taxed hard; there had been a tax strike against the French as early as 1907.
Rise of Nationalism: 1927 the National Party of Vietnam was founded, inspired by communist ideology and nationalism, offered a unifying platform for anti-colonial resistance. They mobilized peasants, workers, and intellectuals. As in India, Vietnamese intellectuals like Phan Boi Chau and Nguyen Ai Quoc (Ho Chi Minh) used Western education and ideas. The success of guerrilla warfare and grassroots mobilisation challenged the French militarily and politically. The Vietminh (national independence coalition formed Hồ Chí Minh in May 1941) did not follow a strict communist policy of land expropriation during WWII and retained the support of landlords. In the towns, it was supported by the middle class, to whose nationalist sentiments it appealed.
French resistance to decolonisation: Unlike in Britain after World War II de Gaulle and France wanted to rebuild her empire. Cambodian and Laotian monarchies were restored. The French imposed Bao Dai as their puppet to be their leader of Vietnam. Bao Dai's had a history of collaboration with both the French and Japanese.

External Factors = Impact of World War II and beginnings of Cold War

Japanese Occupation: During World War II (1940–1945), the Japanese displaced French authority in Indochina, exposing the vulnerability of European colonial powers. The Japanese left local nationalist groups, particularly the Viet Minh, with valuable experience in governance and resistance. When Japan surrendered in 1945, the power vacuum allowed the Viet Minh to declare the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
Weakened French Position: France’s defeat by Germany in 1940 and its reliance on the Vichy government damaged its prestige as a colonial power. The colonial Vichy regime, under Admiral Decoux, signed a compromise agreement by which the Japanese were allowed into the northern areas which was very unpopular and helped provoke nationalist sentiment.
Cold War Dynamics: The Cold War gave the Viet Minh external allies, particularly the Soviet Union and China after the communist victory in 1949. These countries provided weapons, training, and logistical support to the Viet Minh during the First Indochina War (1946–1954). The United States, despite supporting the Vietminh’s wartime struggle against the Japanese, decided not to oppose French recolonisation because of the new Cold War fear of the spread of communism.
Global anticolonialism: The post-war period saw a wave of decolonization, with independence movements in Asia (e.g., India in 1947, Indonesia in 1949) inspiring nationalist leaders in Indochina. France, already facing resistance in Algeria, lacked the capacity to maintain its empire on multiple fronts. The creation of the United Nations and its principles of self-determination added pressure on colonial powers to decolonize.

Key events and immediate consequences

The August Revolution (1945), initiated by the Viet Minh, resulted in the declaration of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, challenging French control. The French refused to recognise it, and from October 1945 the longest war of decolonisation of the twentieth century began. The colonial war against the French was a prelude to that against the world's strongest power, the United States. There is no better example of the continuity between decolonisation and Cold War conflicts.

In 1948, Vietnam under Bao Dai was accepted as a state within the French Union. The next year, the independence of Vietnam under his leadership was recognised by the French Government, but no vote of the people of the newly independent state was taken. Bao Dai's regime was presented as an independent state under attack from communism. Once China installed a communist regime (1949), the domino theory was advanced (NSC-68) as a justification for staying. A war that had begun in 1946 over French imperialism had, in three years, mushroomed into part of a regional struggle against communism in South East Asia. The United States backed the French because they assumed that the Vietminh and even the Chinese communists were puppets of the USSR.

The defeat of France: General Giap and Dien Bien Phu, 1950-54

It is probable that no single, individual influenced the outcome of the wars in Indochina more than General Vo Nguyen Giap. [Died in 2013 aged 102] In the fighting against the French between 1946 and 1949, Giap masterminded the guerrilla tactics that frustrated the French. Well-armed by the Chinese from 1950, however, he switched to a modern war of movement. The French were forced to 'Vietnamise' their armed forces by raising an army from Bao Dai's supporters. The war also became 'Americanised' in that the USA supplied $2,900 million of aid in 1950-54, and in the last year were bearing 80 per cent of the cost.

In early 1954 a large army of 12,000 troops under General Henri Navarre got themselves surrounded in the long valley of Dien Bien Phu, in the north of Tonkin province. For almost two months the Vietminh bombarded with heavy artillery a French army unable to be relieved because its airstrips had been cut off. President Eisenhower was prepared to respond to French appeals to send in B-29 bombers from the Philippines bases, but Congress refused support. Consequently, 2,000 French died, and 10,000 were captured.

The Geneva Conference (1954)

As in India, the Geneva agreement partitioned Vietnam into two separate states either side of the 17th parallel. Laos and Cambodia also became independent states. Therefore, it was not a permanent settlement, for the new government of North Vietnam regarded the South as still under imperialist domination. French masters had merely been exchanged for American ones. The United States never signed the settlement but agreed to abide by it. The promise of free elections for the whole of Vietnam by 1956 was not honoured because Secretary of State John Foster Dulles feared the Vietminh would win them. Instead, Bao Dai headed a compliant government in the South with Ngo Dinh Diem as Prime Minister. (The story continues in Cold War - Vietnam.)

The Congo (accelerated decolonisation)

One of the features of accelerated decolonisation was that there appeared to be little pressure of decolonisation until it happened. But when it did happen, it happened very quickly. External factors (UNO, Cold War, foreign intelligence agencies) were critical to understanding how the process of decolonisation unfolded (badly!).

Unlike the Dutch in Indonesia, Belgian decolonisation did not appear imminent as the Second World War ended. The Congo had not suffered occupation, and in 1945 seemed to be one of the most stable examples of colonialism.

Internal Factors

Lack of political inclusion and representation: The Belgians avoided developing an educated middle class that might challenge colonial authority, focusing instead on producing skilled craftsmen rather than professionals like doctors, lawyers, or engineers. By the mid-20th century, there were virtually no Congolese in positions of authority, and the administration, key industries, and financial institutions remained entirely Belgian. No African was appointed to the Governor-General's Council until 1947, and by 1960, there were fewer than 30 Congolese university graduates.

Rapid and recent modernisation: Rapid urbanization in cities such as Léopoldville (Kinshasa) and Elisabethville (Lubumbashi) after WWII created a burgeoning urban working class exposed to nationalist ideas. The emergence of an educated elite, known as the évolués, further articulated demands for political rights and criticized Belgian policies. These urban developments occurred alongside rising living standards, such as the increase in bicycle ownership, (Congolese were riding 700,000 bicycles by the end of the decade compared with only 50,000 at its beginning). reflecting some aspects of modernization. However, these changes were juxtaposed with economic exploitation. Belgium treated the Congo as a source of raw materials, particularly rubber, copper, and uranium, without reinvesting in local development. (see right)

The Congo's immense diversity, with over 200 ethnic groups, sheer size and lack of communication infrastructure complicated efforts to establish a unified nationalist movement, as did regional disparities, such as the wealth of resource-rich Katanga compared to underdeveloped areas. Prominent nationalist movements included Patrice Lumumba's Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), which sought a unified Congo, and regional parties like ABAKO in Bakongo and CONAKAT in Katanga.
In the late 1950s, Belgium initiated minor political reforms to allow limited local governance. As we saw when looking at the French Revolution in Year 11, Alexis de Tocqueville wrote that 'experience teaches that the most dangerous time for a bad government is usually when it begins to reform'. As in France in 1789, Russia in 1917, so in Congo 1950s. The first local government elections were held in 1957 and resulted in a majority for the Abako party (Alliance des Bakongo). Under Joseph Kasavubu's leadership it modernised its programme to advocate equal access to education and the administration. Discontent spilled over into mass protests and riots, such as the Léopoldville Riots of January 1959, which were violently suppressed, further radicalizing the population and propelling grassroots activism.

External Factors

Economic and Social Effects of World War II: The war stimulated the Belgian Congo economically, through increasing demand for its raw materials. Some Congolese resources became more valuable in the context of wartime shortages, leading to increased demand for products like rubber and minerals. The social consequences of this industrialisation and economic growth - one-quarter of the population living in urban areas - resulted in Congolese workers beginning to behave like Belgian ones (see internal factors above). Unlike Belgium itself the Congo was not invaded throughout the war. The Belgian government-in-exile, based in London, maintained some level of control over the colony, but local administrators in the Congo were given more autonomy in governing the territory.
Influence of pan-Africanism and African independence movements: The independence of Ghana in 1957 under Kwame Nkrumah demonstrated that colonial powers could be successfully challenged. The broader Pan-African movement, emphasizing self-determination and unity, provided ideological support for Congolese demands for independence. The Algerian War (1954-1962) had a profound effect on Belgian policymakers. The number of French military personnel killed estimated to be between 25,000 and 30,000 + 1000s French civilians. 1m Algerians? A cautionary tale about maintaining colonial rule through force + international condemnation of French actions in Algeria influenced Belgian thinking.
International anti-colonial context: The Cold War rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union influenced the Congo’s decolonisation. Both superpowers supported decolonisation efforts in Africa to expand their ideological influence. The U.S., wary of Soviet expansion, pressured Belgium to avoid prolonged colonial conflicts that could drive Congo toward communism, accelerating the timeline for independence. The United Nations played an increasingly prominent role in advocating for decolonisation after World War II. Resolutions calling for self-determination and equal rights put pressure on colonial powers, including Belgium, to grant independence to their colonies. The global spotlight on decolonization further legitimized the demands of Congolese nationalist leaders
Decline of European Colonial Powers: Events like the Bandung Conference (1955) and the Suez Crisis (1956) underscored the declining influence of European colonial powers. The Bandung Conference united leaders from newly independent Asian and African nations, inspiring nationalist movements across the continent. The Suez Crisis highlighted the inability of European powers like Britain and France to assert dominance without U.S. support, signaling the inevitability of decolonization. Belgium observed these developments, including U.S. hostility toward colonial interventions, and recognized the necessity of relinquishing control over its colonies.

Economic problems and riots: accelerated decolonisation, 1959-60

The catalyst of Belgian decolonisation was the Leopoldville riots of January 1959. The first wave of industrialisation was over by 1955 and Congolese mineral exports fell from 1957 causing rising urban unemployment. The scale of the spontaneous violence in Leopoldville shocked the government of Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens (Prime Minister 1958 to March 1961.) The Belgians did not want suffer what the French were experiencing in Algeria. Negotiations began between the Belgian government and nationalist leaders at the Round Table Conference in Brussels in 1960. The Belgians wanted a gradual transfer of power over four years, but the Congolese leaders wanted immediate independence. Belgium gave in and agreed that elections would be held in May. On 30 June 1960, King Baudouin I of Belgium handed over power to the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo in a ceremony in Leopoldville.

The Congolese President was Joseph Kasavubu and the Prime Minister was Patrice Lumumba. In his speech, King Baudouin insulted the Congolese by praising the genius and courage of his uncle, Leopold II. In response, Lumumba criticised the Belgian government's 'regime of injustice, oppression and exploitation'. He said, 'We are no longer your monkeys.'

"We have known ironies, insults, blows that we endured morning, noon, and evening, because we are Negroes. Who will forget that to a black man it is forbidden to walk in the street of certain towns in this country? Who will forget that a black man is addressed as 'tu,' not because he is a friend, but because the more a black man is humiliated, the more he is considered a Negro?"

Civil War in the context of the Cold War

Independence began badly. Within days, there was a rebellion in the Congolese army as native soldiers rebelled against their white Belgian officers. The Belgian government flew in thousands of troops to protect white civilians and to take over many key positions. Lumumba declared that Belgium was at war with the Congo. The new state of the Congo faced further trouble when one of its richest provinces, Katanga, secretly encouraged by Belgium rebelled and declared its independence. Lumumba appealed to the United Nations. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 143, which called on Belgium to remove its troops. Lumumba demanded that UN troops end the secession of Katanga. Instead, the UN Secretary-General, Dag Hammarskjold, said the UN wanted to negotiate a settlement with Katanga. Hammarskjold died in mysterious circumstances. (This is currently under investigation at the UN) Lumumba asked the Soviet Union (USSR) for help. The US feared that the Congo would become a base for Soviet Communist operations in central Africa. At this point, US President Eisenhower authorised the CIA to assassinate Lumumba.

The Belgian government also planned to get rid of Lumumba because he was as an obstacle to their plans in the country. The President of the Congo, Kasavubu, dismissed Lumumba as Prime Minister of the Congo.

In turn, Lumumba accused Kasavubu of treason and dismissed him as President of the Congo. By now (September I960), the Congo was badly split between rival groups. On 14 September, with the support of the US and Belgium, Mobutu took over power in the Congo and expelled Russian advisers. Lumumba and two others were shot after being tortured. The Belgian media conspired to cover-up Belgium's involvement. (see Prezi opposite) Only very recently have things begun to change. BBC summer 2022 'Patrice Lumumba: DR Congo buries tooth of independence hero'.

It was the beginning of one of the most extra-ordinary authoritarian dictatorships of the 20th century. Despite the catastrophic abuses of power, Mobutu's anti-communism in Congo (Zaire) kept him in power until the end of the Cold War. (See next lesson)

Activity.

Download and complete this summary document on the three case studies of decolonisation.

Below are two videos from John Green for those who feel they can't learn history unless Mr Green is teaching it. They were made nearly a decade apart - before and after fame and fortune - which explains the differences between them. The third film is a lecture from a series about colonisation and decolonisation that I first mentioned last year. Richard Evans of Cambridge University is one of Britain's most important contemporary historians.